The geography of industry is a branch of economic geography that studies the location of industrial production, its factors and patterns, the conditions and characteristics of the development and location of industry in various countries and regions.

For the geography of industry, the following important features of industrial production are most significant:

• a clear and far-reaching division into branches, the number of which is constantly increasing, especially during the period of the modern scientific and technological revolution;
• the exceptional complexity of production, technological and economic ties, due to the versatility of types of industrial enterprises;
• variety of forms public organization production (combination, specialization, cooperation);
• the formation of local and regional production-territorial combinations (under socialist conditions, planned, mainly in the form of complexes);
• a high degree of production and territorial concentration (of all types of material production, industry is the least evenly distributed over the territory of the earth), associated with the need for certain conditions for this type of production (availability of raw materials, energy, personnel, demand for products, favorable economic and geographical position, provision of infrastructure etc.).

Industry (from Russian to trade, craft) is a set of enterprises engaged in the production of tools, extraction of raw materials, materials, fuel, energy production and further processing of products. In geography, it is considered as a branch of the economy.

The industry consists of two large groups of industries:

1. Mining.
2. processing.

Since the 19th century, industry has been the basis for the development of society. And although today only about one in six working people work in industry, this is still a lot - about 17%. Industry is the most important part of the world economy, and at the level of the country's economy it is an industry on which the achievements of the entire national economy of any state depend.

Depending on the time of occurrence, all industries are usually divided into three groups: old, new and latest industries.

Old Industries: coal, iron ore, metallurgical, textile, shipbuilding.

New industries: automotive industry, aluminum industry, plastics industry.

Latest Industries(originated in the era of scientific and technological revolution): microelectronics, atomic and aerospace production, chemistry of organic synthesis, microbiological industry, robotics.

At present, the role of new and latest branches of industrial production is increasing. Leading countries in terms of total industrial production: USA, China, India, Germany, Brazil, Russia, Japan, France, Indonesia, Australia, Italy, etc.

Natural gas industry

By 1990, Eastern Europe became the leader in production, with the leading role of the USSR. There was a significant gas production in Western Europe and Asia. The result was a change in the geography of the world's gas industry. The USA lost its monopoly position, and their share decreased to 1/4, and the USSR became the leader (now Russia has retained its leadership). Russia and the US concentrate half of the natural gas produced in the world. Russia remains stable, the world's largest gas exporter.

coal industry

Coal is mined in more than 60 countries of the world, but more than 10 million tons of them are mined. 11 countries produce annually - China (field - Fu-Shun), USA, Russia (Kuzbass), Germany (Ruhr), Poland, Ukraine, Kazakhstan (Karaganda).

Exporters of coal - USA, Australia, South Africa.

Importers - Japan, Western Europe.

Oil industry

Oil is produced in 75 countries of the world, Saudi Arabia, Russia, USA, Mexico, UAE, Iran, Iraq, China are in the lead.

Electric power industry of the world

The role of the power industry is to provide electricity to other sectors of the economy. And its significance in the era of scientific and technological revolution, especially with the development of electronization and integrated automation, is especially great.

Over 100 billion kilowatts per hour is generated in 13 countries - the USA, Russia, Japan, Germany, Canada, Italy, Poland, Norway and India.

In terms of electricity generation per capita, the leaders are: Norway (29 thousand kWh), Canada (20), Sweden (17), USA (13), Finland (11 thousand kWh), with an average global indicator of 2 thousand .kW h.

Metallurgical industry of the world

Metallurgy is one of the main basic industries, providing other industries with structural materials (ferrous and non-ferrous metals).

For quite a long time, the size of metal smelting almost in the first place determined the economic power of any country. And all over the world they are growing rapidly. But in the 70s of the XX century, the growth rate of metallurgy slowed down. But steel remains the main structural material in the global economy.

Forestry and woodworking industry of the world

The timber and woodworking industry is one of the oldest industries. For a long time, it provided other industries with structural materials and raw materials. The main importers of wood are Japan, countries Western Europe, partly USA.

Includes: logging, primary woodworking, pulp and paper and furniture manufacturing

Light industry of the world

The light industry provides the needs of the population for fabrics, clothing, footwear, and other industries with specialized materials.

Light industry includes 30 major industries, which are combined into groups:

• primary processing of raw materials;
• textile industry;
• clothing industry;
• shoe industry.

The main exporters are Hong Kong, Pakistan, India, Egypt, Brazil.

mechanical engineering

Mechanical engineering is one of the oldest industries. But in terms of the number of employees and the value of products, it still ranks first among all sectors of the world industry. Mechanical engineering determines the sectoral and territorial structure of industry, provides machines and equipment for all sectors of the economy.

North America. It produces about 30% of all engineering products. Almost all types of products are present, but it is especially worth mentioning - the production of rocket and space technology, computers.

Foreign Europe. The volume of production is about the same as in North America. It produces mass products, machine tool and automotive products.

Eastern and Southeast Asia. It stands out for precision engineering products and precision technology products.

CIS. 10% of the total, heavy engineering stands out.

Chemical industry of the world

Chemical industry is one of the avant-garde industries that ensure the development of the economy in the era of scientific and technological revolution.

There are 4 major regions of the chemical industry:

1. Foreign Europe (Germany is in the lead);
2. North America (USA);
3. East and Southeast Asia (Japan, China, Newly Industrialized Countries);
4. CIS (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus).

The chemical industry has a significant impact on nature. On the one hand, the chemical industry has a wide raw material base, which makes it possible to dispose of waste and actively use secondary raw materials, which contributes to a more economical use of natural resources. In addition, it creates substances that are used for chemical purification of water, air, plant protection, soil restoration.

On the other hand, it itself is one of the most "dirty" industries that affect all components of the natural environment, which requires regular environmental protection measures.

Manufacturing industry - a set of industries for the processing of industrial and agricultural raw materials obtained by the extractive industry in nature (mining, agriculture). This industry includes enterprises of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, woodworking enterprises, processing of oil, gas and chemical products, metalworking and mechanical engineering, food, textile and pulp and paper production, clothing and footwear industry, production of building materials.

Geography of the manufacturing industry

The leaders of the manufacturing industry in the world are economically developed countries, which focus on the science-intensive production of more expensive and innovative products. Superiority, despite the weakening of the share in world production in recent years, is held by the US manufacturing industry, followed by Japan and the EU countries, led by Germany. Ultra-fast growth rates are demonstrated by the industrial countries of Asia, in particular the industry of China and South Korea. Manufacturing in Russia, after a significant decline in the 90s of the 20th century, is now showing stable growth in many industries.

Types of manufacturing industries

This type of production involves the physical and/or chemical processing of substances and materials in order to transform them into new products. The exception is waste recycling. Products of manufacturing industries can be ready-to-use or semi-finished products for further processing. Thus, the non-ferrous metal cleaning product is further used for the production of primary products (for example, aluminum or copper wire), which, in turn, will be used for the production of equipment or machine components.

The structure of manufacturing industries in Russia and the main types of manufactured products in terms of volume:

• Food products, including the production of tobacco and beverages (meat, vegetable and animal oils, bread and bakery products, confectionery, granulated sugar).
• Production of petroleum products (gasoline, motor gasoline, diesel fuel, fuel oil).
• Metallurgy, including finished products (steel, finished rolled ferrous metals).
• Chemical production (mineral fertilizers, synthetic resins and plastics, paints and varnishes).
• Manufacture of rubber and plastic products (tires for various Vehicle, pipes and pipeline fittings made of thermoplastics).
• Processing and production of finished wood products (sawn timber, plywood, chipboard, fiberboard).
• Mechanical engineering (production of machine tools for various purposes, industrial equipment).
• Pulp and paper production (paper, cardboard).
• Textile and clothing production (fabrics, shoes).

Importance of the manufacturing industry

The manufacturing industry accounts for the vast majority of the product produced in the world. About 40% of the value of all industrial products in the world falls on mechanical engineering. Significantly inferior chemical and food processing industries. The share of these sectors in the total industrial output is approximately 15%. The woodworking and pulp and paper industries produce about 9-10% of all world production, and 5-7% is accounted for by metallurgy and the electric power industry.

In Russia, the shares of output between manufacturing industries are distributed approximately as follows:

• Mechanical engineering - 22%.
• Oil refining industry - 21%.
• Black and non-ferrous metallurgy - 16%.
• Food industry - 16%.
• Chemical - 10%.
• Production of building materials - 5%.

Metallurgy in the Russian manufacturing industry

The manufacturing industries of the metallurgical complex cover almost all stages of the technological process (except for the extraction of raw materials) for obtaining the final product in the form of metals and alloys. This is a mutually influencing combination of processes:

• Preparation of raw materials (agglomeration, enrichment, obtaining concentrates).
• Metallurgical processing - obtaining steel, cast iron, various rolled products.
• Alloy production.

The specificity of metallurgical production is the scale and complexity of the technological cycle. The production of many types of products involves 15-18 redistributions.

Ferrous metallurgy as part of the manufacturing industry

In terms of the volume of ferrous metals produced annually, Russia is significantly ahead of many countries in the world. Each of the eight largest enterprises in the country produces over 3 million tons of products every year. Ferrous metallurgy serves as the foundation for the development of the largest manufacturing industry - mechanical engineering. The technological process for the production of ferrous metals as a type of manufacturing industry covers all stages, from the preparation of raw materials and auxiliary materials to the production of rolled products and further processing. The metallurgical manufacturing industry, which is characterized by production combination, in Russia covers a large number of enterprises, eight of which are especially large:

• Magnitogorsk, Chelyabinsk, Nizhny Tagil, Orsk-Khalilovsky metallurgical plants (Urals).
• Cherepovets plant.
• Novolipetsk (Central Chernozem region).
• Kuznetsk and West Siberian plants.

These enterprises process more than 90% of iron ore and 40% of secondary raw materials.

mechanical engineering

Machine-building processing industries are the largest consumers of products produced by ferrous metallurgy. The territorial proximity of these industries gives metallurgical enterprises the opportunity to specialize in accordance with the needs of mechanical engineering and use their waste as a secondary raw material.

Machine-building enterprises producing difficult-to-transport products are located in areas of consumption. The industry's products include: agricultural machinery, mining equipment, turbines, machines and mechanisms for other industries. Features of the location of heavy engineering enterprises play an important role in the supply of finished products.

Oil refining industry

Part of the country's oil industry. Since oil, unlike other types of fuel, requires mandatory primary processing for its further use, the oil refining industry is quite large. The main products obtained after oil processing are: kerosene, gasoline, diesel fuel and fuel oil. Processing takes place at refineries (petroleum refineries), the totality of which makes up the oil refining industry. There are 32 large and 80 small refineries in Russia with a total production capacity of about 300 million tons. In terms of the scale of processing, Russia ranks third in the world. Transportation of 95% of all crude oil from production sites to refineries in Russia is provided by trunk oil pipelines.

Outcome

The manufacturing industry reflects the degree of industrial development of the country. It is the leading sector of the global industry and accounts for most of the value of all products. The manufacturing industry is closely interconnected with other industries. In many parts of the world, this industry is always experiencing advanced growth rates, and the share in total production often reaches 90%.

- an important part of the economic complex Russian Federation, the leading role of which is determined by the fact that it provides all sectors of the economy with tools and new materials, serves as the most active factor in scientific and technological progress and expanded in general. Among other branches of the economy, industry stands out for its complex and district-forming functions.

In 2008, Russia operated 456 thousand industrial enterprises, where 14.3 million people were employed, providing output in the amount of 20613 billion rubles.

Russian industry has complex diversified and diversified structure, reflecting changes in development, in improving the territorial division of social labor associated with scientific and technological progress.

Modern industry is characterized by a high level of specialization. As a result of the deepening of the social sector, many industries, sub-sectors and types of industries have arisen, which in their totality form the sectoral structure of industry. In the current classification of industry, 11 complex industries and 134 sub-sectors are identified.

Sectoral structure of Russian industry* (% of total)

Industries	1992	1995	2000	2004
Industry - in general	100	100	100	100
Including:	8,1	10,5	9,2	7,6
	14,0	16,9	15,8	17,1
Of which: oil	9,0	10,9	10,4	12,1
oil refining	2,3	2,6	2,3	2,1
gas	1,4	1,8	1,7	1,5
coal	1,2	1,5	1,4	1,3
ferrous metallurgy	6,7	7,7	8,6	8,2
non-ferrous metallurgy	7,3	9,0	10,3	10,3
mechanical engineering and metalworking	23,8	0	20,5	22,2
chemical and petrochemical	6,4	19,2	7,5	7,2
forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper	5,0	6,3	4,8	4,3
production of building materials	4,4	5,1	2,9	2,9
light	5,2	3,7	1,8	1,4
food	14,5	2,3	14,9	15,4
flour-grinding and mixed fodder	4,0	2,0	1,6	1,2

Since 2005, domestic statistics have switched to a slightly different classification of industries, which is denoted as dividing the volume of shipped goods of own production, work performed and services into three groups of industries:

• mining;
• manufacturing industries;
• production and distribution of electricity, gas and water.

At the same time, 2/3 falls on manufacturing industries, the share of which is slowly increasing, more than 1/5 - on the extraction of minerals, and about 1/10 - on the third division.

The sectoral structure of industry is determined by many social and economic factors, the main of which are: the level of development of production, technical progress, socio-historical conditions, the production skills of the population, Natural resources. The most significant of them, characterizing changes in the sectoral structure of industry, is scientific and technological progress.

The industry is divided into:

• mining, which includes industries associated with the extraction and enrichment of ore and non-metallic raw materials, as well as with the extraction of sea animals, catching fish and other marine products;
• processing, which includes enterprises for the processing of products of the extractive industry, semi-finished products, as well as for the processing of agricultural products, forestry and other raw materials. Manufacturing industries form the backbone of heavy industry.

According to the economic purpose of products the whole industry is divided into two large groups: group "A" - the production of means of production and group "B" - the production of consumer goods. However, it should be noted that the division of industry into these groups does not coincide with the sectoral structure of industrial production, since the natural form of manufactured products does not yet determine its economic purpose. Since the products of many enterprises can be intended for both industrial and non-industrial consumption, they are classified in one group or another, depending on the actual use.

The sectoral structure of the industry of modern Russia is characterized by:

• the predominance of industries for the extraction and primary processing of fuel and raw materials;
• a low share of the top, most technically complex industries;
• a low share of light industry and other industries focused on the immediate needs of the population;
• high proportion of branches of the military-industrial complex.

Such an industrial structure cannot be considered efficient. The branches of the fuel and energy complex, metallurgy and the military-industrial complex are called “three pillars of Russian industry”, because they determine its face and role in the international system of territorial division of labor.

During the economic crisis of the 1990s. The largest decline in production was observed in the manufacturing industries, especially in mechanical engineering and light industry. At the same time, the sectors of the extractive industry and the primary processing of raw materials increased their share in the industrial production of Russia. Changes in the sectoral structure of the industry are also due to the physical wear and tear and obsolescence of equipment, which is reflected in the upper floors of the industry that produce technically complex products. At the beginning of 2008, the degree of depreciation in the group of industries extracting minerals exceeded 53%, in manufacturing - 46%, and in industries involved in the production and distribution of electricity, gas and water - 52%.

With the exit from the economic crisis, there is a revival in almost all industries, especially mechanical engineering, the food, pulp and paper industries and individual chemical and petrochemical industries. And yet today the sectoral structure of industrial production in Russia has much more features of a developing country than an economically developed country.

Forms of territorial organization of industry. The spatial combination of industries and individual industries is formed under the influence of many factors. These include the provision of mineral raw materials, fuel and energy, material and labor resources. These factors are closely related, having a certain impact on the location of enterprises and various industries economy. In the process of locating industrial production, various forms of its territorial organization have developed.

Large economic zones are vast territorial formations with characteristic natural and economic conditions for the development of productive forces.

There are two major economic zones on the territory of the Russian Federation:

• Western, which includes the European part of the country together with the Urals, which is characterized by a shortage of fuel, energy and water resources, a high concentration of industrial production and the predominant development of manufacturing industries;
• Eastern, which includes the territory of Siberia and the Far East, which is distinguished by the presence of large reserves of fuel and energy and mineral resources, poor development of the territory and the predominance of extractive industries.

Such a division into large economic zones is used in the analysis and determination of the prospective territorial proportions of the country's economic complex.

industrial areas They are large territories with relatively homogeneous natural conditions, with a characteristic direction in the development of productive forces, with an appropriate existing material and technical base, industrial and social infrastructure.

On the territory of Russia, about 30 industrial areas, of which 2/3 are located in the Western zone of the country. The highest concentration of industrial regions is observed in the Urals - 7 (Tagilsko-Kachkanarsky, Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk, Perm, Verkhne-Kamsky, South-Bashkirsky and Orsko-Khalilovsky), in the Center - 4 (Moscow, Tula-Novomoskovsky, Bryansko-Lyudinovsky and Ivanovsky ) and in the north of the Volga region (Samara, Nizhnekamsk, South Tatar). In the east of the country, industrial areas are mainly located in the zone Trans-Siberian Railway- Kuznetsk in Western Siberia, Irkutsk-Cheremkhovo in Eastern Siberia, South Yakutsk and South Primorsky in the Far East. The Far North is characterized by focal distribution of industrial areas - Kola in the European North, Sredneobsky and Nizhneobsky in Western Siberia, Norilsk in Eastern Siberia. The specialization of the economy of each industrial region reflects the direction of development of the economy of the region in whose territory it is located.

Industrial agglomerations— territorial economic entities characterized by a high level of concentration of enterprises in various sectors of the economy, infrastructure facilities and scientific institutions, as well as a high population density. The economic prerequisites for the development of industrial agglomeration are a high level of concentration and diversification of production, as well as the possibility of the most efficient use of industrial and social infrastructure systems.

The compact placement of a group of enterprises in various sectors of the economy leads to a reduction in the occupied territory required for industrial construction by an average of 30%, and reduces the number of buildings and structures by 25%. Savings reach 20% of the cost of common facilities due to the creation of unified utility and auxiliary complexes, production and social infrastructure.

The country has large industrial agglomerations: Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, St. Petersburg, Yaroslavl, etc. However, excessive development and concentration of production beyond certain limits negative impact, significantly reducing the economic effect. This is primarily related to security issues. environment and development of the social sphere.

An industrial hub is considered as a group of industries located compactly in a small area. Its main feature is participation in the system of territorial division of labor of the country, the presence of industrial relations between enterprises, the commonality of the settlement system, social and technical infrastructure. Industrial units are planned and developed as elements of dissected spatial structures of territorial production complexes and represent a qualitatively new phenomenon in the regulated process of development of the territorial structure of the economy.

Such forms of territorial organization of the economy are developing not only in old industrial areas (for example, in Zheleznogorsk, associated with the extraction and enrichment of iron ore of the Kursk magnetic anomaly, and in Cheboksary, the development of which was facilitated by the Cheboksary hydroelectric power station, a tractor plant and a chemical plant with related industries), but and in areas of new development (Sayanogorsk, which is being formed on the basis of the electric power industry generated by the Sayano-Shushenskaya and Mainskaya hydroelectric power stations, and energy-intensive industries).

industrial centers for the most part, they do not have technological ties with each other, therefore, such placement reduces the possibilities for the development of cooperation, and, consequently, their growth efficiency. Regional centers serve as an example.

Under industrial point understand the territory within which one or more enterprises of the same industry are located (small towns and workers' settlements).

In recent decades, such forms of industrial organization as technopolises and technoparks have been developed in Russia, which can be used to restructure production on a new technological basis, maintain scientific and technical potential and finance science, and attract investment.

In Russia, technopolises and technoparks are created on the basis of educational and research institutes that maintain close ties with industry. They exist in the form of joint ventures (JV), joint-stock companies (JSC), associations, etc. Such forms of territorial organization of the economy are being developed in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Tomsk. The creation of technoparks in Samara, Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov-on-Don, Chelyabinsk (closed cities of the military-industrial complex) is being planned.

National economy- a historically established complex (set) of industries of a given country, interconnected by a division of labor.

— an important component of the economic complex of the Russian Federation.

The industry of Russia has a complex diversified diversified structure, reflecting changes in the development of productive forces, in improving the territorial division of social labor associated with scientific and technological progress.

Industries

Fuel and Energy Complex

One of the intersectoral complexes, which is a set of closely interconnected and interacting branches of the fuel industry and the electric power industry, meeting the needs of the national economy and the population in fuel and energy resources.

The fuel and energy complex is the most important structural component of the Russian economy, one of the factors in the development and distribution of the country's productive forces. The share of the fuel and energy complex in 2007 reached 60% in the country's export balance.

Fuel industry. Mineral fuel is the main source of energy in the modern economy. In terms of fuel resources, Russia ranks first in the world.

The fuel and energy complex includes such industries as:

• Gas industry
• coal industry
• Oil industry
• Power industry

Gas industry

is the youngest and fastest growing industry. It is engaged in the production, transportation, storage and distribution of natural gas.

Gas production is 2 times cheaper than oil production and 10-15 times cheaper than coal production. About 1/3 of the explored world reserves of natural gas are concentrated on the territory of Russia. The European part accounts for 11.6%, the eastern regions 84.4%. Over 90% of natural gas is produced in Western Siberia.

The development of the gas industry is closely related to gas pipeline transport. The Unified Gas Supply System has been created in Russia to transport gas. Most often, gas pipelines lead from the territory of western Siberia to the west.

Russian gas pipelines:

• Brotherhood
• Radiance of the North
• Yamal-Europe (connects gas fields in the north of Western Siberia with end-users in Western Europe)
• Blue Stream (along the bottom of the Black Sea to Turkey)
• South Stream (along the bottom of the Black Sea to Italy and Austria)
• Nord Stream (along the bottom of the Baltic Sea to Germany)

Oil industry

— engages in the extraction and transportation of oil, as well as the extraction of associated gas.

Russia has quite large proven oil reserves (about 8% of global reserves, 6th in the world)

The largest oil fields:

• Samotlor
• Ust-Balykskoe
• Megion
• Yugansk
• Kholmogorskoe
• Variegonskoe

coal industry

- is engaged in the extraction and primary processing of hard and brown coal and is the largest branch of the fuel industry in terms of the number of workers and the cost of production fixed assets.

Coal mining. China USA Germany, India

Coal mining in Russia:

1. Kuznetsk coal basin (Kuzbass) ( Kemerovo region) (55%)
2. Kansk-Achinsk coal basin - open pit mining and the lowest cost. Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk - cities of consumption (one seventh)
3. The South Yakutsk coal basin (9%) is mined in an open way, has a high quality (hard coal is mined), a significant part of the coal is exported to Japan,
4. The Pechersk corner of the basin is located on the territory of Yakutia, it accounts for 7-8%, coal is very expensive, it is mined. Used in the skull metallurgical plant)
5. Eastern wing of the dombass. Mine production. Coal is expensive at the cost of production. the rock is very thin

Coal basins of local type:

• Carboniferous (Kizelovsky Irkutsk, Buriinsky Alexandrovsky)
• lignite (Moscow basin, Chelyabinsk, South Ural, Lower Zeya)
• Promising basins (those basins that are not being developed) (Lensky in the Lena River basin and Tunguska in the Yenisei basin)

Power industry

- part of the fuel and energy complex, providing the production and distribution of electricity and heat.

In terms of power generation, Russia ranks fourth in the world after the United States, China and Japan.

The production of electricity is carried out by thermal power plants, hydroelectric power plants and nuclear power plants.

TPP

Thermal power plants provide two thirds of energy in the Russian Federation

They are built relatively quickly and at lower cost, and are located either in fuel extraction areas or in consumption areas.

As fuel use:

• Coal: Nazarovskaya, Irsha-Borodinskaya, Berezovskaya (in the Kansk-Achinsk basin)

• Mazut: a group of Surgut power plants

• Gas: konakokskaya

• Peat: Ivanovskaya

A variety of thermal power plants is thermal power plants located only in areas of consumption, since their radius of action does not exceed 25 kilometers.

nuclear power station

14% electricity

They are being built in areas of consumption where there are no own energy resources, since one kilogram of uranium replaces 2,500 tons of coal.

The highest density of nuclear power plants in the European part of Russia.

Russia is a pioneer in the development of nuclear energy.

NPPs in Russia:

• Kola
• Leningradskaya (40 km from St. Petersburg)
• Kalininskaya
• Smolensk
• Kursk
• Novovoronesk, Rostov
• Balakovskaya
• Beloyarskaya
• Bilivinskaya (in Chukotka)

hydroelectric power station

15% of total electricity generation.

Hydroelectric power stations are built on large rivers. We have the most powerful hydroelectric power stations. The most powerful former Sayano-Shushenskaya)

• Sayano-Shushenskaya 6.4
• Krasnoyarsk
• Brotherly 4.5
• Ust-ilimskaya 4.3

These are located on the Yenisei. We built less powerful ones on the Volga River. They have different power (maximum 2.2 million kilowatts per year)

A variety of hydroelectric power plants are TPPs (tidal power plants). it is most profitable to build in rocky areas (for example, on the Kola Peninsula, it is called Kislogubskaya).

A new type - geothermal power plants - generate electricity from the internal heat of the earth, near volcanoes, for example, in Yakutia, the Paurzhetskaya GTES, and the recently released Mainutnovskaya.

Metallurgical complex

AT metallurgical complex are included ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy.

Ferrous metallurgy includes a full cycle (cast iron > steel > rolled metal) - this is a full-cycle metallurgy, and there is also pig metallurgy, there is no cast iron in it (steel > rolled metal).

Russia ranks first in the world in ferrous metallurgy, fourth in production.

The first place in production in Russia is the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly.

Factors that affect the placement of ferrous metallurgy:

• availability of raw materials
• Fuel availability
• presence of water
• availability of electricity

In accordance with this, metallurgical plants are located either in the areas of extraction of raw materials (Lipetsk, Stary Oskol) or in the areas of extraction of fuel (Novokuznetsk) or between them (Cherepovets).

On the territory of Russia there was three metallurgical bases . One of the bottom Ural- the most powerful 45% of the metal, and the oldest in time of occurrence. There are four full-cycle metallurgical plants (Chelyabinsk Magnitogorsk, Novotroitsk Nizhny Tagil); all of them are located in the eastern part of the Urals. Converting plants are located on the western slopes of the Urals (Zlatoust, Chusavoy, Serov).

Central metallurgy gives 37% of the metal and allocate two subzones(southern- here iron ore is its own, coal is nearby, but the problem of water is acute (Lipetsk and Stary Oskol) and northern the subzone is the Cherepovets Metallurgical Plant, where iron ore comes from Karelia, and coal from Pechora.

Converting plants are located in Volgograd, Nizhny Novgorod, Vyksa, Kulebaki.

The third metallurgical base - Siberian(18% of ferrous metals) there are two full-cycle plants here - West Siberian and Novokuznetsk.

The raw material in the CM has two features:

• low grade of metal in ore
• multicomponent composition

Production of non-ferrous metals includes:

• booty
• enrichment
• concentrate production
• rough metal production
• refining

Factors placement of non-ferrous metals:

• raw material
• fuel and energy

By physical properties CM is divided into two groups:

• light metals (aluminum, titanium, magnesium)
• Heavy metals (copper, lead, zinc, nickel, tin)

Depending on this gradation, the CM is divided into two sub-sectors:

• metallurgy of light metals;
• heavy metal metallurgy

Metallurgy of light metals

The raw materials for aluminum production are bauxite and nickeline.

Aluminum production includes two stages:

• production of alumina, which is located at the feedstock.
• the production of metallic aluminum, which is very electrically intensive and is located near large sources of cheap electricity. (these are Krasnoyarsk, Bratsk, Sayano-Gorsk, Shelekhov - all these four plants are located in Eastern Siberia, Volgograd, Volkhov, Nadvoitsy, Kandalaksha, all these plants are based on hydroelectric power plants, but Novokuznetsk, Kamensk-Uralsky are based on thermal power plants, that make them work.

Metallurgy of heavy metals

Very material intensive. and is usually located near sources of raw materials (100 tons of ore is used to produce one ton of copper, 300 tons of ore is used to produce one ton of tin)

copper industry

The main copper deposits are located in the Urals, regions of eastern Siberia and the northern region.

Nickel-cobalt production.

The main reserves are the north of eastern Siberia, the Urals, the Murmansk region.

Aluminum copper and nickel - eastern Siberia, the Urals and northern economic region- they are all produced together only here. tin west is located in the north 85%.

polymetallic ores (lead and zinc) polymetallic ores are located in mountainous regions along the southern borders (northern Caucasus, northern Ossetia, south of western Siberia, south of eastern Siberia and in the Primorsky Territory in the Far East.)

Placement Factors Mechanical Engineering:

• Specialization and cooperation of production
• Availability of highly qualified labor resources
• Presence of a consumer
• Availability of raw materials
• Transport and geographical position

Automotive industry

Everything except raw materials has a decisive influence on placement. First place in terms of production: the economic regions of Tolyatti, Ulyanovsk, Engels, Chelny Naberezhnye, second place Volgovyatsky district - Nizhny Novgorod, Pavlovo, the third place is the central regions - Golitsino, Likeno, Serpukhov, Ivanovo, the last place is the Urals - Izhevsk, Kurgan, Miass, new centers.

Carriage building

Determining factors:

• raw material
• transport and geographical position

Types of wagons:

• Freight wagons: Abakan, Novoaltaisk
• Passenger cars — Tver, Korolev
• Tram cars - Ust-Katav,
• Subway cars: Mytishchi, Egorov Leningrad Plant
• Electric trains: Riga, Denyukhov district

Locomotive building is divided into electric locomotives and diesel locomotives.

To the factors of location of electric locomotives - historical factors are added. in the USSR, the largest was Tbilisi, now Novocherkassk.

Production of diesel locomotives - Kolomna, Lyudinovo, Udelnaya, Murom, Bryansk

Shipbuilding

placement factors:

• specialization and cooperation is the most important
• labor resources

Marine shipbuilding

Large factories: St. Petersburg, Kaliningrad, Vyborg, in the north Severodvinsk and Arkhangelsk.

River shipbuilding - on the Volga - Nizhny Novgorod, Volgograd Astrakhan, on the Ob Tyumen, on the Eniei Krasnoyarsk, on the Amur Blagoveshchensk, Khabarovsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur.

Tractor building

Placement factors:

• raw material
• consumer

Tractors are produced:

• agricultural - Lipetsk, Chelyabinsk, Volgograd, Rubtsovsk,
• industrial - Kirovets (St. Petersburg) Cheboksary.
• skidders - the city of Petrozavodsk (where there are forests)
• potato harvesters — Ryazan
• flax harvesters — Bezhevsk, Tver region

Agricultural engineering is located at the consumer's, but taking into account the specifics of agriculture in a given territory. Rostov-on-Don, Taganrog, Krasnoyarsk.

Timber industry complex

Peculiarities:

• the predominance of conifers (90%)
• predominance of mature and overmature stands (60 years for hardwoods, 100 years for conifers)
• uneven placement

The timber industry is divided into three sectors: logging located in forested areas:

• northern region (Arkhangelsk region, Republic of Komi and Karelia)
• Ural region (Perm region and Sverdlovsk region)
• western siberia (south of the tyumen region and tomsk region)
• Eastern Siberia (south of the Krasnoyarsk Territory, Irkutsk Region and the Far East ( Amur region, Kharabovsky and Primorsky Territories)

Woodworking industry

It is located in logging areas, in the lower reaches of raftable rivers, at the intersection of raftable rivers with roads, in consumer areas.

Pulp and paper industry placement factors:

• availability of raw materials
• availability of electricity
• presence of water

Paper production:

• The first place in production is occupied by the northern region - it produces more than half of all paper - Arkhangelsk, Kotlas, Syktyvkar, Segezha, Kandapoga.
• The second place in the production of paper produces paper - they produce special paper - stamped - Solikamsk, Krasnokamsk, Krasnovishevsk, Novaya Lyalya,
• The third place is occupied by the Volga-Vyatka economic region - Volzhsk, Balakhna, Pravdinsk
• Fourth place - northwestern region - Svetogorsk
• The fifth place is eastern Siberia - Bratsk and Ust-Ilinsk. and the Far East. city ​​of Amursk

but on the territory of western Siberia there is no pulp and paper industry.

Chemical complex

Mining chemistry

This is the extraction of chemical raw materials - apatites of the Kola Peninsula (first place in the world in terms of extraction)

Basic chemistry

Production of mineral fertilizers of acids, alkalis and soda

Mineral fertilizer industry, production potash fertilizers- located at the raw material.

Berezniki, Solikamsk, (Perm region, Ural region)

All types of fertilizers are produced in the Urals ecoregion.

Phosphate fertilizers, are placed with the consumer, since all units of finished products are obtained from one unit of raw materials.

Production of nitrogen fertilizers

It has the freest nature of placement, since coal is used as a raw material (Kemerovo)

metallurgical production waste (sulphurous gas) Cherepovets, Lipetsk, Magnitogorsk, and the third type of raw material is natural gas - the city of Nevinnomyssk in the northern Caucasus, Novomoskovsk (Tula region) Veliky Novgorod. Novgorod region, its budget is replenished most of all at the expense of mineral fertilizers.

Agriculture and agro-industrial complex

Three areas of education:

• industries providing agriculture and processing industries with means of production
• the second sphere is agriculture
• the third area - industries that process agricultural raw materials (food industry)

Maintaining the vital activity of human society at the present level would be impossible without the achievements of the industrial economy. This is the most important segment of the production of labor tools, raw materials and materials on which the world market is based. However, there are many aspects that must be taken into account when defining the term "industry". from point of view ordinary person? At least a means of production, without which he cannot imagine his life today. But there are also many areas of production that do not affect the lives of certain groups of people at all. Therefore, this concept requires a more detailed interpretation.

Industry Definition

In a broad sense, industry should be understood as one of the branches of the national economy. If we talk about its tasks, then the provision of industrial sectors with technical means and materials that will make it possible to maintain the efficiency of enterprises will come to the fore. The manufacture of goods for personal use is also an important part of the production activity that modern industry covers. What is from a technological point of view? This is a set of enterprises provided with technical means and materials for the production of a particular product. At the same time, it is necessary to separate the manufacturing and this economy. In the first case, enterprises engaged in the processing of already received raw materials or blanks can be considered. In the second - directly mining activities are carried out. Moreover, it is far from always that processing facilities at the output provide a product that is more ready for final use than mining ones.

Types of industries

The industry covers many industries from traditional extractive industries to high-tech areas. The more familiar and classic include the woodworking, mining and food industries. In the 20th century, against the backdrop of intensive technological development, such areas as metallurgy, mechanical engineering, energy, production of building materials, etc. experienced an upswing. Against this background, the link was strengthened, in which industry and production played a complementary role. Modern stage characterized by the development of specialized industries. These include the electric power industry, the chemical and microbiological industry, instrument making, etc.

Many areas can be divided on the basis of light and heavy industry. The first group will include areas in which small-format products or products are produced - mainly for personal consumption. Enterprises from the second category produce machine tools, units, turbines, structures and raw materials in large volumes. These include the branch of heavy engineering, which is closely related to metallurgy and metalworking. In fact, this is a small conglomerate of industries, the resources and capacities of which make it possible to produce not only machine tools with rolled metal, but also high-tech equipment, materials for the research complex, etc.

end products

Most often, the industrial sector provides as its product only a blank for further processing at highly specialized enterprises. It can be the same lumber, ore, coke, plastic, etc. That is, by the time of release, they are not ready with consumer point view of the goods. Nevertheless, in the same industrial sector there is a considerable percentage of enterprises that complete the production cycle, releasing the final product. These can be cars, machine tools, building materials, glass and porcelain products, appliances, etc. A separate segment is the fuel and energy products of the industry, which refers to coal, oil, gas, and some biomaterials. Energy generation in different types- also a kind of product that ensures the performance of the same industrial enterprises as the most demanding consumer. In this area, thermal, nuclear and hydrological stations stand out.

Industrial facilities

The concept of an object is also quite broad. In this capacity, one can consider both the enterprises themselves (factories, combines, factories, processing complexes, workshops, etc.), and the components that form the industrial infrastructure within one organization. From a technical point of view, the objects can be units, conveyor lines, equipment and structures, due to which the release or processing of the product is carried out. But most often, machine tools, presses and conveyors determine only the power potential on which an industrial enterprise is based. What is an industrial facility in terms of construction? It can be a whole complex of structures, premises, workshops and hangars in which diverse processes are implemented. Again, to separate category objects of this kind can be attributed to power generation stations. A hydroelectric power plant, for example, is a capital structure, the result of which is transported through power lines.

Impact on the economy

The development of the economy of a modern state directly reflects the state of the industrial sector. Moreover, the most influential industries include the electric power industry, mechanical engineering and the chemical sector. Both quantitative and output of such enterprises characterize, in turn, their competitiveness in market conditions - accordingly, this affects productivity and the economy. Of course, the importance of industry for a particular economy can also have a negative connotation. This mainly applies to industries with a focus on the commodity sector. As a rule, they are also characterized by a low level technical base and modest production assets.

The Future of Industry

Like construction, the industry vividly reflects the benefits that modern technology brings. The introduction of new ideas and solutions helps to increase productivity, optimize logistics processes and reduce costs. Already in the near future, technologists predict a full-scale transition of most enterprises to computer-automated operations management. Thus, heavy engineering can completely switch to robotic maintenance of conveyor lines, and power stations will receive intelligent control systems for the transportation, distribution and conversion of energy.

Conclusion

Despite the intensive development in various industries and areas, there are many factors that hinder this growth. These include problems of environmental safety and lack of finance. After all, what is industry in the modern sense? This is necessarily a competitive, safe and viable enterprise in the market that is able to provide the consumer with a quality product. Accordingly, it should not harm the environment, look for alternative technological solutions and, of course, cope with the excess costs caused also by the transition to new technical means.

Section 1. History of industrial development.

Section 2. Classification industry.

Section 3. Industries industry.

- Subsection 1. Power industry.

- Subsection 2. Fuel industry.

- Subsection 4. Color metallurgy.

- Subsection 5. Chemical and petrochemical industry.

- Subsection 6. Mechanical engineering and metalworking.

- Subsection 7. Forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industry.

- Subsection 8 Building materials industry.

- Subsection 9. Light industry.

- Subsection 10. Glass and porcelain industry

- Subsection 11. Food industry.

Industry- a set of enterprises engaged in the production of tools, extraction of raw materials, materials. Energy production and further processing of products obtained in industry or produced in agriculture - the production of consumer goods.

Industry is the most important industry national economy, which has a decisive influence on the level of development of the productive forces of society.

History of industrial development

Industry was born within the natural household peasant economy. In the era of the primitive communal system, the main industries production activities among most peoples (agriculture and animal husbandry), when products intended for their own consumption were made from raw materials obtained in the same economy. The development and direction of the domestic industry was determined by local conditions, and depended on the availability of raw materials:

skin processing;

leather dressing;

felt production;

various types of processing of tree bark and wood;

weaving various items of trade (ropes, vessels, baskets, nets);

spinning;

weaving;

pottery production.

For the medieval economic regime, it is traditional to combine peasant household crafts with patriarchal (natural) agriculture, which is an integral part of the pre-capitalist mode of production, including the feudal one. Wherein trade item left the boundaries of the peasant economy only in the form of quitrent in kind to the landowner, and domestic industry was gradually replaced by small-scale manual production of industrial trade items, however, not completely displaced by the latter. Thus, the craft played an important economic role in the states of the era of feudalism.

Generation electrical energy

The generation of electricity is process transformations various kinds energy into electrical energy, at industrial facilities called power plants. Currently, there are the following types of generation:

Thermal power industry. In this case, the thermal energy of combustion of organic fuels is converted into electrical energy. The thermal power industry includes thermal power plants (TPPs), which are of two main types:

Condensing (CPP, the old abbreviation GRES is also used);

Cogeneration (thermal power plants, thermal power plants). Cogeneration is the combined generation of electrical and thermal energy at the same station;

IES and EC have similar technological processes. In both cases, there is a boiler in which fuel is burned and, due to the heat released, steam is heated under pressure. Next, the heated steam is fed into a steam turbine, where its thermal energy is converted into rotational energy. The turbine shaft rotates the rotor of the electric generator - thus, the rotational energy is converted into electrical energy, which is fed into the network. The fundamental difference between CHP and IES is that part of the steam heated in the boiler goes to heat supply needs;

Nuclear energy. It includes nuclear power plants (NPPs). In practice, nuclear power is often considered a subspecies of thermal power, since, in general, the principle of generating electricity at nuclear power plants is the same as at thermal power plants. Only in this case, thermal energy is released not during the combustion of fuel, but during the fission of atomic nuclei in a nuclear reactor. Further, the scheme for the production of electricity is no fundamentally different from a thermal power plant: steam is heated in a reactor, enters a steam turbine, etc. Due to some design features It is unprofitable to use nuclear power plants in combined generation, although separate experiments in this direction were carried out;

Hydropower. It includes hydroelectric power plants. In hydropower, the kinetic energy of water flow is converted into electrical energy. To do this, with the help of dams on the rivers, a difference in the levels of the water surface is artificially created. Water under the action of gravity overflows from the upper pool through special channels in which water turbines are located, the blades of which are spun by the water flow. The turbine rotates the rotor of the generator. a special variety hydroelectric power station are pumped storage stations (PSPP). They cannot be considered generating capacities in pure form, since they consume almost as much electricity as they generate, however, such stations are very effective in offloading the network during peak hours.

Recently, studies have shown that the power of sea currents exceeds the power of all the world's rivers by many orders of magnitude. In this regard, the creation of experimental offshore hydroelectric power plants is underway.

Alternative energy. It includes methods for generating electricity that have a number of advantages compared to the "traditional" ones, but for various reasons have not received sufficient distribution. Main types alternative energy are:

Wind power - use kinetic energy wind to generate electricity;

Solar energy - obtaining electrical energy from the energy of sunlight;

Also, in both cases, storage capacities are required for night (for solar energy) and calm (for wind energy) time;

Geothermal energy is the use of the natural heat of the Earth to generate electrical energy. In fact, geothermal stations are ordinary thermal power plants, where the heat source for heating steam is not a boiler or a nuclear reactor, but underground sources of natural heat. The disadvantage of such stations is the geographical limitations of their application: it is cost-effective to build geothermal stations only in regions of tectonic activity, that is, where natural heat sources are most accessible;

Hydrogen energy - the use of hydrogen as an energy fuel has great prospects: hydrogen has a very high combustion efficiency, its resource is practically unlimited, hydrogen combustion is absolutely environmentally friendly (the product of combustion in an oxygen atmosphere is distilled water). However, hydrogen energy is currently not able to fully satisfy the needs of mankind due to the high cost of producing pure hydrogen and the technical problems of transporting it in large quantities. In fact, hydrogen is just a carrier of energy, and in no way removes the problem of extracting this energy.

Tidal energy uses the energy of sea tides. The spread of this type of electric power industry is hampered by the need for the coincidence of too many factors in the design of a power plant: not just a sea coast is needed, but a coast on which the tides would be strong enough and constant. For example, the Black Sea coast is not suitable for the construction of tidal power plants, since the water level drops in the Black Sea at high and low tide are minimal.

Wave energy, upon careful consideration, may turn out to be the most promising. Waves are concentrated energy of the same solar radiation and wind. Wave power in different places can exceed 100 kW per linear meter of the wave front. There is excitement almost always, even in calm ("dead swell"). In the Black Sea, the average wave power is about 15 kW/m. Northern seas of the Russian Federation - up to 100 kW/m. The use of waves can provide energy for sea and coastal settlements. Waves can set ships in motion. The average rolling power of the vessel is several times higher than the power of its power plant. But so far, wave power plants have not gone beyond single prototypes.

The transmission of electrical energy from power stations to consumers is carried out by electrical networks. Elektra grid economy is a natural monopoly sector of the electric power industry: the purchaser can choose from whom to buy electricity.

Power lines are metal conductor through which an electric current flows. It is now almost universally used alternating current. The power supply in the vast majority of cases is three-phase, so the power line, as a rule, consists of three phases, each of which can include several wires. Structurally, power lines are divided into overhead and cable.

Overhead lines are suspended above the ground at a safe height on special structures called supports. As a rule, the wire on the overhead line has no surface insulation; insulation is available at the points of attachment to the supports.

The main advantage overhead lines transmission is their relative cheapness compared to cable. Also, maintainability is much better: no excavation is required. work to replace the wire, the visual state of the line is not hindered by anything. However, overhead power lines there are a number of disadvantages:

wide right-of-way: it is forbidden to erect any structures and plant trees in the vicinity of power lines; when the line passes through the forest, the trees along the entire width of the right-of-way are cut down;

aesthetic unattractiveness; this is one of the reasons for the almost universal transition to cable transmission in urban areas.

Usually transformer oil in liquid form, or oiled paper, acts as an insulator. The conductive core of the cable is usually protected by steel armor.

Fuel industry

The fuel and energy complex (FEC) is a complex system that includes a set of industries, processes, material devices for the extraction of fuel and energy resources (FER), their transformation, transportation, distribution and consumption of both primary FER and converted types of energy carriers. It includes:

oil industry;

coal industry;

gas industry;

electric power industry.

The fuel industry is the basis for the development of the Russian economy, an instrument for pursuing domestic and foreign policy. The fuel industry is connected with the entire industry of the country. More than 20% is spent on its development Money accounts for 30% of fixed assets and 30% cost industrial products of the Russian Federation.

Implementation of the state politicians in the fuel industry is carried out by the Ministry of Energy of Russia and its subordinate companies, including the Russian Energy Agency.

Fuel industry. Main Suppliers energy carriers are located in Asia (the countries of the Persian Gulf, as well as China).

Not all countries have their own energy resources suppliers leading in terms of economic potential are quite adequately provided with them only USA, Russia, China, UK, Australia. A sufficiently large group of countries partially covers the needs with their own fuel, for example, the Federal Republic of Germany, Ukraine, Poland, India, etc. But there are many industrialized countries and those that practically do not have their own energy resources. These are Japan, Sweden, the Republic of Korea, not to mention the small industrialized countries of the world.

The leading branch of energy is the oil industry. For a long time in the second half of the XX century. economy Europe, USA and Japan developed due to cheap black gold, whose production in developing countries was controlled by oil transnational corporations. But after its formation in 1960 Firms exporting countries black gold(OPEC), which took over production and sale black gold into their own hands, the era of "cheap black gold" has passed, the oil monopolists had to share profits. In addition, mining conditions have become more difficult. Oil companies operate in less developed areas, a significant part of the black gold is mined offshore, often at great depths. Political instability and conflicts, especially in the Middle East, also add to the problems in the oil business.

Industry (Industry) is

The woodworking industry is a branch of the timber industry. Using various timber products, the woodworking industry carries out mechanical and chemical-mechanical processing and processing of wood.

Pulp and paper production - technological process, aimed at obtaining pulp, paper, cardboard and other related products of the final or intermediate processing.

Paper was first mentioned in Chinese chronicles in 12 BC. e. The raw materials for its manufacture were bamboo stalks and mulberry tree bast. In 105, Lun generalized and improved the existing methods for obtaining paper.

Paper appeared in Europe in the 11th-12th centuries. She replaced papyrus and parchment (which was too expensive). At first, crushed hemp and linen rags were used to make paper.

As early as 1719, Réaumur suggested that wood could serve as a raw material for paper production. However, the need to use wood arose only in early XIX century, when the paper machine was invented, dramatically increasing productivity, as a result of which paper mills began to experience a shortage of raw materials.

In 1853, Mellier (France) patented a method for obtaining cellulose from straw by cooking with a 3% solution of sodium hydroxide in hermetically sealed boilers at a temperature of about 150 ° (soda pulp). Almost simultaneously, Watt (England) and Barges (USA) took out patents for the production of pulp in a similar way from wood. The first plant for the production of soda pulp was built in 1860 in the United States of America.

In 1866, B. Tilgman (USA) invented the sulfite method for the production of cellulose.

In 1879, K. F. Dahl (Sweden), having modified the soda pulp, invented the sulfate method for the production of cellulose, which to this day is the main method for its production.

Since production requires wood and a lot of water, pulp and paper mills are usually located on the banks of large rivers, then it becomes possible to use the rivers to alloy wood, which serves as the main raw material for production.

Production of a special type of paper

The following fibrous semi-finished products are used to obtain paper and cardboard (data for 2000):

waste paper - 43%

sulfate cellulose - 36%

wood pulp - 12%

sulfite cellulose - 3%

semi-cellulose - 3%

cellulose from non-wood vegetable raw materials - 3%

For the manufacture of higher grades of paper, on which money and important documents are printed, shredded scraps of textiles are also used.

In addition, sizing agents, mineral fillers and special dyes are added to the paper to give special properties.

Industry (Industry) is

building materials industry

Building materials - materials for the construction of buildings and structures. Along with the "old" traditional materials like wood and brick, with the beginning of the industrial revolution, new building materials appeared like concrete, steel, glass and plastic. Currently, prestressed reinforced concrete and metal-layers are widely used.

Distinguish:

Natural stone materials;

woody Construction Materials and subject of trade;

Artificial firing materials;

metals and metal trade items;

Glass and glass trade items;

Decoration Materials;

polymeric materials;

Thermal insulation materials and trade items from them;

Waterproofing and roofing materials based on bitumen and polymers;

Portland cement;

Hydration (inorganic) binders;

In the process of construction, operation and repair of buildings and structures, the building objects of trade and the structures from which they are erected are subjected to various physical, mechanical, physical and technological influences. The civil engineer is required to competently choose the right material, trade item, has sufficient resistance, reliability and durability for specific conditions.

Building materials and trade items used in the construction, reconstruction and repair of various buildings and structures are divided into

natural

artificial

which fall into two main categories:

They are used in the construction of various elements of buildings (walls, ceilings, coatings, floors).

waterproofing, heat-insulating, acoustic, etc.

The main types of building materials and trade items

stone natural building materials and articles of trade from them

binders, inorganic and organic

timber products and articles of trade from them

metal trade items.

Depending on the purpose, conditions of construction and operation of buildings and structures, appropriate building materials are selected that have certain qualities and protective properties from exposure to various external environment. Given these features, any building material must have certain construction and technical properties. For example, the material for the outer walls of buildings should have the lowest thermal conductivity with sufficient strength to protect the room from the outside cold; the material of the construction for irrigation and drainage purposes - water tightness and resistance to alternate moistening and drying; pavement material (asphalt, concrete) must have sufficient strength and low ejectibility to withstand traffic loads.

When classifying materials and trade items, it must be remembered that they must have good properties and qualities.

Property - a characteristic of a material that manifests itself in the process of its processing, application or operation.

Quality is a set of material properties that determine its ability to meet certain requirements in accordance with its purpose.

The properties of building materials and trade items are classified into four main groups:

physical,

mechanical,

chemical,

technological, etc.

Physical properties of building materials.

The true density ρ is the mass of a unit volume of a material in an absolutely dense state. ρ =m/Va, where Va is the volume in the dense state. [ρ] = g/cm³; kg/mі; t/m. For example, granite, glass and other silicates are almost completely dense materials. Determination of true density: a pre-dried sample is ground into powder, the volume is determined in a pycnometer (it is equal to the volume of the displaced liquid).

The average density ρm=m/Ve is the mass per unit volume in natural state. The average density depends on temperature and humidity: ρm=ρw/(1+W), where W is the relative humidity and ρw is the wet density.

Bulk density (for bulk materials) - the mass per unit volume of loosely poured granular or fibrous materials.

Open porosity - the pores communicate with the environment and among themselves, are filled with water under normal conditions of saturation (immersion in a bath of water). Open pores increase the permeability and water absorption of the material, reduce frost resistance.

Closed porosity Pz=P-Po. An increase in closed porosity increases the durability of the material, reduces sound absorption.

The porous material contains both open and closed pores.

Hydrophysical properties of building materials.

Water absorption by mass Wm (%) is determined in relation to the mass of dry material Wm=(mv-mc)/mc*100. Wo=Wm*γ, γ is the volumetric mass of dry material, expressed in relation to the density of water (dimensionless value). Water absorption is used to evaluate the structure of the material using the saturation coefficient: kн = Wo/P. It can vary from 0 (all pores in the material are closed) to 1 (all pores are open). A decrease in kn indicates an increase in frost resistance.

Water permeability is the property of a material to let water through under pressure. Filtration coefficient kf (m/h is the dimension of velocity) characterizes the water permeability: kf=Vv*a/, where kf=Vv is the amount of water, mі, passing through a wall with area S = 1 m², thickness a = 1 m during the time t = 1h with a difference in hydrostatic pressure at the boundaries of the wall p1 - p2 = 1 m of water. Art.

The water resistance of the material is characterized by the W2 brand; W4; W8; W10; W12, denoting the one-sided hydrostatic pressure in kgf/cm², at which the concrete sample-cylinder does not pass water under the conditions of a standard test. The lower kf, the higher the water resistance mark.

Water resistance is characterized by the softening coefficient kp = Rb/Rc, where Rb is the strength of the material saturated with water, and Rc is the strength of the dry material. kp varies from 0 (soaking clays) to 1 (metals). If kp is less than 0.8, then such material is not used in building structures that are in water.

Hygroscopicity is the property of a capillary-porous material to absorb water vapor from the air. absorption of moisture from the air is called sorption, it is due to the polymolecular adsorption of water vapor on the inner surface of the pores and capillary condensation. With an increase in the pressure of water vapor (that is, an increase in the relative humidity of the air at a constant temperature), the sorption moisture content of the material increases.

Capillary suction is characterized by the height of the rise of water in the material, the amount of water absorbed and the intensity of suction. A decrease in these indicators reflects an improvement in the structure of the material and an increase in its frost resistance.

Humidity deformations. Porous materials change their volume and dimensions with changes in humidity. Shrinkage - reduction in the size of the material when it dries. Swelling occurs when the material is saturated with water.

Thermophysical properties of building materials.

Thermal conductivity is the property of a material to transfer heat from one surface to another. The Nekrasov formula relates the thermal conductivity λ [W / (m * C)] with the volumetric mass of the material, expressed in relation to water: λ \u003d 1.16√ (0.0196 + 0.22γ2) -0.16. As the temperature rises, the thermal conductivity of most materials increases. R is thermal resistance, R = 1/λ.

Heat capacity c [kcal / (kg * C)] - the amount of heat that needs to be reported to 1 kg of material in order to increase its temperature by 1C. For stone materials, the heat capacity varies from 0.75 to 0.92 kJ / (kg * C). With an increase in humidity, the heat capacity of materials increases.

Fire resistance - the property of a material to withstand prolonged exposure to high temperatures (from 1580 ° C and above), without softening or deforming. Refractory materials are used for the internal lining of industrial furnaces. Refractory materials soften at temperatures above 1350 °C.

Fire resistance - the property of a material to resist the action of fire during a fire for a certain time. It depends on the combustibility of the material, that is, on its ability to ignite and burn. Fireproof materials - concrete, brick, etc. But at temperatures above 600 ° C, some fireproof materials crack (granite) or severely deform (metals). Difficult-to-combustible materials smolder under the influence of fire or high temperature, but after the fire stops, their burning and smoldering stops (asphalt concrete, wood impregnated with fire retardants, fiberboard, some foam plastics). Combustible materials burn with an open flame, they must be protected from fire by constructive and other measures, treated with flame retardants.

Linear thermal expansion. With a seasonal change in the temperature of the environment and material by 50 °C, the relative temperature deformation reaches 0.5-1 mm/m. To avoid cracking, structures of great length are cut with expansion joints.

Frost resistance of building materials.

Frost resistance - the property of a material saturated with water to withstand alternate freezing and thawing. Frost resistance is quantified by the brand. The mark is taken as the largest number of cycles of alternate freezing down to −20 °C and thawing at a temperature of 12-20 °C, which the material samples can withstand without a decrease in compressive strength of more than 15%; after the test, the samples should not have visible damage - cracks.

Mechanical properties of building materials

Elasticity - spontaneous restoration of the original shape and size after the termination of the external force.

Plasticity is the property of changing shape and size under the influence of external forces without collapsing, and after the termination of the action of external forces, the body cannot spontaneously restore shape and size.

Permanent deformation - plastic deformation.

Relative deformation - the ratio of absolute deformation to the initial linear size (ε=Δl/l).

The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress to rel. strain (E=σ/ε).

Brick, concrete, the main strength characteristic is the compressive strength. For metals, steel - the compressive strength is the same as in tension and bending. Since building materials are heterogeneous, the tensile strength is determined as the average result of a series of samples. The test results are influenced by the shape, dimensions of the samples, the state of the supporting surfaces, and the speed of awarding. Depending on the strength of the materials are divided into grades and classes. Grades are written in kgf / cm², and classes - in MPa. The class characterizes guaranteed strength. Strength class B is the tensile strength of standard specimens (concrete cubes with a rib size of 150 mm) tested at the age of 28 days of storage at a temperature of 20 ± 2 °C, taking into account the static variability of strength.

Structural quality factor: KKK=R/γ(strength to relative density), for 3rd steel KKK=51 MPa, for high-strength steel KKK=127 MPa, heavy concrete KKK=12.6 MPa, wood KKK=200 MPa.

Hardness is an indicator that characterizes the property of materials to resist the penetration of another, denser material into it. Hardness index: HB=P/F (F is the imprint area, P is the force), [HB]=MPa. Mohs scale: talc, gypsum, lime...diamond.

Abrasion is the loss of the initial mass of the sample when this sample passes through a certain path of the abrasive surface. Abrasion: I=(m1-m2)/F, where F is the area of ​​the abraded surface.

Wear is the property of a material to resist both abrasion and impact loads. Wear determined in a drum with or without steel balls.

As natural stone materials in construction, rocks are used that have the necessary building properties.

By geological classification rocks divided into three types:

magmatic (primary).

sedimentary (secondary).

metamorphic (modified).

Igneous (primary) rocks formed when molten magma that rose from the depths of the earth cooled. Structures and properties of igneous rocks largely depend on the cooling conditions of the magma, in connection with which these rocks are divided into deep and erupted.

Deep rocks were formed during the slow cooling of magma in the depths of the earth's crust at high pressures of the overlying layers of the earth, which contributed to the formation of rocks with a dense granular-crystalline structure, high and medium density, and high compressive strength. These rocks have low water absorption and high frost resistance. These rocks include granite, syenite, diorite, gabbro, etc.

Erupted rocks were formed in the process of magma outflow to earth's surface with relatively rapid and uneven cooling. The most common outflowing rocks are porphyry, diabase, basalt, and loose volcanic rocks.

Sedimentary (secondary) rocks were formed from primary (igneous) rocks under the influence of temperature changes, solar radiation, the action of water, atmospheric gases, etc. In this regard, sedimentary rocks are divided into clastic (loose), chemical and organogenic.

Clastic loose rocks include gravel, crushed stone, clay.

Chemical sedimentary rocks: limestone, dolomite, gypsum.

Organogenic rocks: shell limestone, diatomite, chalk.

Metamorphic (modified) rocks were formed from igneous and sedimentary rocks under the influence of high temperatures and pressures in the process of raising and lowering the earth's crust. These include shale, marble, quartzite.

Natural stone materials and trade items are obtained by processing rocks.

According to the method of obtaining stone materials are divided into:

ragged stone (but) - mined in an explosive way

rough-cut stone - obtained by splitting without processing

crushed - obtained by crushing (crushed stone, artificial sand)

sorted stone (cobblestone, gravel).

Stone materials are divided by shape

irregularly shaped stones (crushed stone, gravel)

piece trade items having correct form(plates, blocks).

Crushed stone - acute-angled pieces of rocks ranging in size from 5 to 70 mm, obtained by mechanical or natural crushing of buta (torn stone) or natural stones. It is used as a coarse aggregate for the preparation of concrete mixes, foundations.

Gravel - rounded pieces of rocks ranging in size from 5 to 120 mm, also used for the preparation of artificial gravel-crushed stone mixtures.

Sand is a mixture of rock grains ranging in size from 0.14 to 5 mm. It is usually formed as a result of weathering of rocks, but can also be obtained artificially - by crushing gravel, crushed stone, and pieces of rocks.

Mortars are carefully fine-grained mixtures consisting of an inorganic binder (cement, lime, gypsum, clay), fine aggregate (sand, crushed slag), water and, if necessary, additives (inorganic or organic). In a freshly prepared state, they can be laid on the base in a thin layer, filling all its irregularities. They do not exfoliate, seize, harden and gain strength, turning into a stone-like material.

Mortars are used in masonry, finishing, repair and other works. They are classified according to their average density: heavy with an average ρ = 1500 kg / m³, light with an average ρ

Solutions prepared on one type of binder are called simple, mixed from several binders.

For the preparation of mortars, it is better to use sand with grains that have a rough surface. protects the solution from cracking during hardening, reduces its price.

Waterproofing solutions (waterproof) - cement mortars with a composition of 1: 1 - 1: 3.5 (usually fatty), to which sodium aluminate, calcium nitrate, chloride, bitumen emulsion are added.

For the manufacture of waterproofing solutions, Portland cement, sulfate-resistant Portland cement, is used. Sand is used as a fine aggregate in waterproofing solutions.

Masonry mortars - used when laying stone walls, underground structures. They are cement-lime, cement-clay, lime and cement.

Finishing (plaster) mortars - are divided according to their purpose into external and internal, according to their location in the plaster into preparatory and finishing.

Acoustic mortars are light mortars with good sound insulation. These solutions are prepared from Portland cement, Portland slag cement, lime, gypsum, and other binders using light porous materials (pumice, perlite, expanded clay, and slag) as fillers.

Glass is a supercooled melt of complex composition from a mixture of silicates and other substances. Molded glass products are subjected to a special heat treatment - firing.

Window glass is produced in sheets up to 3210×6000 mm in size. Glass, in accordance with its optical distortions and normalized defects, is divided into grades M0-M7.

Showcase glass is produced polished and unpolished in the form of flat sheets 2-12 mm thick. It is used for glazing shop windows and openings. In the future, glass sheets can be subjected to further processing: bending, tempering, coating.

Highly reflective sheet glass is an ordinary window glass, on the surface of which a thin translucent reflective film made on the basis of titanium oxide is applied. Glass with a film reflects up to 40% of the incident light, light transmission is 50-50%. Glass reduces the view from the outside and reduces the penetration of solar radiation into the room.

Radioprotective sheet glass is an ordinary window glass, on the surface of which a thin transparent shielding film is applied. The screening film is applied to the glass during its formation on machines. Light transmission is not less than 70%.

Reinforced glass is produced on production lines by the method of continuous rolling with simultaneous rolling inside a sheet of metal mesh. This glass has a smooth, patterned surface and can be colorless or colored.

Heat-absorbing glass has the ability to absorb infrared rays from the solar spectrum. It is intended for glazing window openings in order to reduce the penetration of solar radiation into the premises. This glass transmits visible light rays by at least 65%, infrared rays by no more than 35%.

Glass pipes are made from ordinary transparent glass by vertical or horizontal stretching. Pipe length 1000-3000 mm, inner diameter 38-200 mm. Pipes withstand hydraulic pressure up to 2 MPa.

According to the conditions of hardening - they are divided:

item of trade, hardening during autoclaving and heat treatment

subject of trade, hardening in an air-humid environment.

Prepared from a homogeneous mixture of mineral binder, silica component, gypsum and water.

During the exposure of the product before autoclaving, hydrogen is released from it, as a result of which tiny bubbles form in a homogeneous plastic-viscous binder medium. In the process of gas release, these bubbles increase in size, creating spheroidal cells in the entire mass of the cellular concrete mix.

During autoclave treatment under a pressure of 0.8-1.2 MPa in a highly humid air-steam environment at 175-200 ° C, an intensive interaction of the binder with silica components occurs with the formation of calcium silicate and other cementing neoplasms, due to which the structure of cellular highly porous concrete acquires strength.

Single-row cut panels, wall and large blocks, single-layer and double-layer curtain wall panels, single-layer slabs of interfloor and attic floors are made from cellular concrete.

Silicate brick is molded on special presses from a carefully prepared homogeneous mixture of pure quartz sand (92-95%), air lime (5-8%) and water (7-8%). After pressing, the brick is steamed in autoclaves in a vapor-saturated environment at 175 °C and a pressure of 0.8 MPa. They make a single brick with a size of 250x120x65 mm and a modular (one and a half) brick with a size of 250x120x88 mm; solid and hollow, front and ordinary.

Industry (Industry) is

Light industry

Light industry occupies one of the important places in the production of the gross national product and plays a significant role in the country's economy. Light industry carries out both the primary processing of raw materials and the production of finished products.

One of the features of light industry is a quick return on investment. Technological features of the industry allow for a quick change in the range of products with a minimum expenses, which ensures high mobility of production.

Light industry combines several sub-sectors:

Textile.

Cotton.

Woolen.

Silk.

Hemp-jute.

Knitted.

Felting and felt.

Network knitting.

Haberdashery.

Leather.

In Russia, the first light industry enterprises appeared in the 17th century. Until the 19th century, Russian light industry was represented by cloth, linen and other manufactories, created mainly with the help of the state and fulfilling government orders. The rapid growth of most branches of light industry began in the second half of the 19th century, when the landlord factories based on the labor of serfs began to be replaced by capitalist factories based on the labor of hired workers. This developed most intensively in the 1860s.

At the end of the 19th century, light industry determined the industrial development of the Russian Federation, occupying a significant share in the total volume of industrial production (32.4% in 1887, 26.1% in 1900). Some industries were practically non-existent, such as the knitwear industry.

Placement of enterprises on the territory Russian Empire was uneven. The largest number of enterprises was in the Moscow, Tver, Vladimir, St. Petersburg provinces. Light industry enterprises were located in the former centers of handicrafts.

Manual labor prevailed in all branches of light industry, and the standard of living of workers in light industry was very low. The main problems of the industry at that time were a weak raw material base and the backwardness of engineering. Russia imported about half of the necessary raw materials (dyes, raw silk) and almost all the equipment. Exports were such commodities as small leather raw materials, silkworm cocoons, morocco, yuft, furs.

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The economic period of 1900-1903 was one of the first to affect the industry, but it turned out to be not as protracted as in other industries. Already in 1908, output increased by 1.5 times compared to 1900 (the growth in the purchasing power of the peasants, who were exempted in 1905 from redemption payments, affected).

The pre-revolutionary light industry is characterized by a mass labor movement. The most famous performances of the workers are the strikes of the weavers of the Morozov factory in Orekhovo-Zuyevo (1885), the Ivanovo-Voznesensk weavers (1905). An important role in the economic collapse in Moscow (1905) was played by the workers of the manufactory. Ivanovo-Voznesensk weavers created a Council of Commissioners, which actually became one of the first Soviets of Workers' Deputies in the Russian Federation. Also, light industry workers took an active part in the February and October revolutions and the class struggle.

Glass and porcelain industry

The porcelain and faience industry is a branch of light industry that specializes in the production of fine ceramics: household and artistic porcelain, faience, semi-porcelain and majolica.

The history of the porcelain and faience industry in Russia dates back to 1744, when the first manufactory (now the Imperial Porcelain Factory) was opened in St. Petersburg. More than half a century later, in 1798, the first faience factory was opened near Kyiv.

After the October Revolution, all enterprises of the porcelain and faience industry were nationalized. industry in the pre-war years, as well as the construction of new factories, made it possible to significantly increase the volume and expand the output. Most of the enterprises were transferred to the newly created domestic raw material base. The main suppliers of kaolin were the enrichment factories of the deposits of the Ukrainian SSR, feldspar materials - Karelia and the Murmansk region, refractory clay - the Donetsk region.

During the Great Patriotic War, some enterprises were destroyed or evacuated. After the war, the porcelain and faience industry began to revive. In the first post-war five-year plan, the construction of new factories for the production of household and artistic porcelain began. From 1959 to 1975, 19 new factories were launched, and all existing enterprises were reconstructed and equipped modern equipment. As a result of modernization, productive suppliers industry for 1961-1975 increased 2.4 times, the level of mechanization - from 36% (1965) to 68% (1975). In 1975, the porcelain and faience industry of the USSR included 35 porcelain factories, 5 earthenware, 3 majolica, 2 experimental, 1 machine-building and 1 plant for the production of ceramic paints.

Industry (Industry) is

food industry

Food industry - a set of industries food products in finished form or in the form of semi-finished products, as well as tobacco trade items, soaps and detergents.

In the system of the agro-industrial complex, the food industry is closely connected with agriculture as a supplier of raw materials and with trade. Part of the branches of the food industry gravitates towards raw material areas, the other part towards consumption areas.

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Soft drinks industry

wine industry

confectionery industry

canning industry

pasta industry

Fat and oil industry

Butter and cheese industry

Dairy industry

Flour and cereal industry.

Meat industry

brewing industry

Fruit and vegetable industry

poultry industry

Fish industry

sugar industry

salt industry

Alcohol industry

tobacco industry.

Moscow State University food production

St. Petersburg State University of Low Temperature and Food Technologies.

Industry (Industry) is

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