Political behavior- these are the features of political activity and political participation, the way a person behaves in a particular political event, this is a way of manifesting political participation and political activity.

Factors affecting political behavior:

• individual emotional and psychological qualities a participant in the political process (for example, emotionality, unpredictability, balance, prudence, etc.);
• personal (group) interestь subject or participant in political actions;
• moral principles and values;
• to competence about the assessment of a particular political event, which is manifested in how well the subject or participant controls the situation, understands the essence of what is happening;
• motivation and degree of involvement of the subject in political life. For some, participation in political events is a random episode; for others, politics is a profession; for others, it is a vocation and the meaning of life; for others, it is a way to earn a living.
• Bulk behavior can be driven socio-psychological properties of the crowd, when individual motivation is suppressed and dissolved in the not quite conscious (sometimes spontaneous) actions of the crowd

Types of political behavior:

• "open”, i.e. political action; under political action a part of social action in general is understood; objects of action are distinguished in it, and individuals, large and small social groups, organizations are the subject
• "closed" characterized by a desire to withdraw from participation in political life.
• adaptive behavior- behavior associated with the need to adapt to the objective conditions of political life;
• situational behavior- this is behavior due to a specific situation, when the subject or participant in political action has practically no choice;
• behavior due to political manipulation(by lies, deceit, populist promises, people are “forced” to behave in one way or another);
• forced behavior, caused by coercion to a certain type of behavior. Such methods of influencing behavior are characteristic of totalitarian and authoritarian regimes of power.

FORMS OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR.

Forms of political behavior in terms of compliance with existing norms:

• lawful conduct- associated with actions and deeds that do not contradict the norms and principles of a given socio-political system, its constitution and other legal acts that regulate relations between an individual and the state, an individual and society;
• deviant behavior- a set of such actions and deeds of a person that do not correspond to the norms (models) of behavior established in a given society. Among them: various offenses of an antisocial, anti-state nature (for example, hooligan behavior at a rally, demonstration, during picketing; desecration of state symbols; unauthorized actions of a political nature, etc.); opposition to the authorities, the implementation of political actions that violate public order, etc. political protest- this is a manifestation of a negative attitude towards the political system as a whole or towards its individual elements, norms, values, political decisions in an openly demonstrated form
• extremist behavior- unauthorized or violent actions against the existing constitutional order, calls for its violent overthrow; aggressive nationalism; political terrorism, etc.

Terrorism belongs to extremist types of political behavior. Political terrorism- systematic or single violence with the use of weapons (explosions, arson, organization of disasters, etc.) or the threat of violence that harms people and property in order to create an atmosphere of fear, panic, a sense of anxiety, danger, distrust of power. The main thing is to intimidate the government and the population. Unlike ordinary criminal offenses, political terrorism manifests itself in such political actions that receive a wide public response, capable of shocking the whole society, influencing the course of political events and decision-making.

Forms of political behavior in terms of succession:

• traditional, corresponding to established political ideas, mentality, typical for a given political culture;
• innovative, creating new patterns of political behavior, generating new features of political relations.

Forms of political behavior according to the target orientation:

• toconstructive contributing to the normal functioning political system;
• destructive undermining the political order.

Forms of political behavior by the number of participants:

• individual- these are the actions of an individual that have socio-political significance;
• group- associated with the activities of political organizations or a spontaneously formed politically active group of individuals;
• massive- Elections, referendums, rallies, demonstrations.

Forms of participation in the political life of the country:

• belonging to parties and political organizations,
• activities in elected bodies state power,
• reading periodicals and familiarization with political broadcasts of radio and television,
• appeal to the authorities, as well as to the editorial offices of newspapers, magazines, on radio and television with proposals to improve the existing situation;
• protest forms . political protest- this is a manifestation of a negative attitude towards the political system as a whole or towards its individual elements, norms, values, political decisions in an openly demonstrated form.

Methods for regulating political behavior.

• Legal regulation. The laws contain norms that, in the interests of the security of society and the state, establish restrictions on the use of civil rights and freedoms. For example, the right to gather for rallies, demonstrations, and picketing is limited by an indication that these meetings must be held peacefully, without weapons.
• Approval in society democratic values defining civilized rules of conduct.
• Organization of policy subjects. The presence of organizations whose activities comply with the requirements of the law reduces the role of spontaneous manifestations in political life, makes political behavior more responsible
• political education and dissemination of truthful political information.
• Important the role of political leaders, their norms, the ability to lead followers along the path of compliance with legal, political and moral standards.

The material was prepared by: Melnikova Vera Alexandrovna.

Political behavior always has a specific carrier. It can be a separate individual or any social group, a state or a bloc of states, a political party or other political organization. Each subject and object of political relations, the political process is characterized by its specific political behavior.

One can speak about the political behavior of a person both in connection with his individual political activity and with the composition of various social groups and political organizations. In each of these cases, the political behavior of the individual acquires its own characteristics, which most often depend on the goals pursued, political attitudes, the orientation of the individual, the methods and means of struggle used, etc. At the same time, the nature of political behavior depends not only on interest and the motivation that arises on its basis, but also on external regulators (reasons). Individuals who prefer the use of certain methods and means in the political struggle, as a rule, are members of such political organizations (parties, movements, associations, etc.) that consider and proclaim these political actions and actions acceptable to themselves.

The political behavior of an individual is influenced by a wide range of social and political factors. These include such as the political regime of society, its legal system, the level of culture, social class, national, ideological, socio-demographic, professional affiliation of the individual, her place of residence (city or village). Socio-psychological factors also directly affect the political behavior of the individual, his features: interests, attitudes, values, beliefs, moods, emotions of the individual, etc. The family, the inner circle of the individual, has a huge power of influence on the choice of a particular form of political behavior. The influence of these factors on the political behavior of an individual is far from being the same. Some of them act constantly, with great force and directly, others have less force and immediacy of influence.

Political behavior is divided into two main types: “open, i.e. political action, and “closed, or so-called political immobility.

Political action is understood as a part of social action in general; it singles out the objects of action, and the subject is individuals, large and small social groups, and organizations. The form and nature of the action depends on the type of subject and the specifics of the object to which it is directed. The essential element is the circumstances or scope of political action. They are formed by factors that the actor can change, as well as prevent their objective change (if any): social norms, customs and other elements of political culture, the type of political organization of society.

Political behavior can be classified as socially meaningful (when the process of socialization of the individual is completed); value-oriented; affected and traditionally conditioned, which is largely associated with the completion of the process of political self-identification of the individual and the group. Behavior, as well as its specific embodiment - action, can be direct, i.e. directly aimed at the object, or indirect (indirect), based on the delegation of authority in various forms and degrees.

The degree of political action can also be varied: from behavior characterized by political passivity, “flight from politics”, to extreme political radicalism. Considering political behavior, political scientists also distinguish its legitimate, deviant and extremist forms.

Lawful include those forms of political behavior that are associated with actions and deeds that do not contradict the norms and principles of a given socio-political system, its constitution and other legal acts that regulate relations between an individual and the state, an individual and society. We can say that this is normal behavior.

Deviant behavior is a set of such actions and actions of a person that do not correspond to the norms (patterns) of behavior established in a given society. Among them: various offenses of an anti-social, anti-state nature (for example, hooligan behavior at a rally, demonstration, picketing; desecration of state symbols; unauthorized actions of a political nature, etc.); opposition to the authorities, political actions that violate public order, etc. .P.

Extremist forms of political behavior include such as unauthorized or violent actions against the existing constitutional order, calls for its violent overthrow; aggressive nationalism; political terrorism, etc. In general, political extremism adheres to extreme views and methods in solving political problems, achieving its political goals.

Concerning specific forms of participation in political life, it should be noted such as the participation of citizens in organized forms of political life, i.e. their affiliation with parties and political organizations, activities in elected bodies of state power, especially at different levels of local government, their participation in political meetings, as well as in elections. Mass participation in political life can be considered reading periodicals and familiarization with political radio and television broadcasts, although the latter is another, passive form of participation in political life. Finally, a special form of political behavior is an appeal to the authorities, as well as to the editorial offices of newspapers, magazines, on radio and television with proposals to improve the existing situation, including if such appeals go beyond personal problems and are in the nature of actions that affect public interests. .

In a number of political systems, the tasks of forming the political consciousness of the masses, their activity, including them in the structure of government, educating citizens a sense of ownership in national affairs are being solved. In this way, the issue that is known in Western political science as the problem of “political inclusion” in public life is solved. At the same time, the political behavior of the individual is predetermined by the process of political socialization, i.e. the complex of those socio-political processes that prepare the individual for an active political life

14. State as the main institution of the political system.

The political system of society arises at a certain stage of its development, reflects the political activity of people, determines the systemic nature of political life.

Within the framework of the political system, a political line, economic, social, cultural and other forms of policy are developed. At the same time, the political system performs a number of functions. This is the definition of goals, objectives, programs of the society; mobilization of resources to achieve the set goals; the integration of all elements of society through propaganda, the use of power, etc.; mandatory distribution of values ​​for all citizens.

Thus, the political system of a society is a set of institutions ( public institutions, political parties, public associations of citizens) and norms (legal and moral), within the framework of which political leadership and public administration of society is carried out.

The state occupies a special place in the political system, giving it integrity and stability, focusing on important public affairs. The main content of politics is concentrated in its activity.

State institutions developed and improved over many centuries as people's ideas about the state, its role and functions, about the best forms of the political structure of society changed. Thinkers of the past viewed the emergence of the state as natural process development and complication of forms of human hostel. The views of ancient philosophers reflected the realities of the political life of states - policies. In medieval Europe, the idea of ​​a state - a fiefdom, where state power was derived from the right to own land, which corresponded to the political and legal practice of feudal society, began to spread.

Further main reason formation of the state was the development of human economic activity. It gave rise to more developed forms of cooperation and organization of joint activities, which contributed to an increase in labor efficiency and the emergence of a surplus product, and after this, the complication of the social structure of society.

The process of formation of state formations was basically completed in the last century. However, even in the 20th century political map world periodically there are new states. As a result of the national liberation struggle, on the ruins of colonialism, new states arose in Latin America, Africa, South-East Asia. Recently, a number of states have emerged on the territory of the former Yugoslavia and the USSR.

The term "state" in the science of politics is usually used in two senses. In a broad sense, the state is understood as a community of people represented and organized by a higher authority and living in a certain territory. At the same time, the synonyms of the term "State" are such words as "country", "people", "society", "Fatherland". In this sense, they speak, for example, of American, Russian, German, etc. state, meaning the entire society it represents. In a narrow sense, the state is understood as an organization, a system of institutions that have supreme power in a certain territory.

In various historical epochs, state formations had common features, called the general features of the state. These features distinguish the state from other organizations and associations in society, make it the basis of the entire political system.

Common to the state are the following features:

1. State sovereignty. Only the state acts as a universal, all-encompassing organization, extending its actions to the entire territory of the country and all citizens. Only it officially represents society inside and outside the country, has the right to legislate and administer justice.
2. Separation of public authority from society, its mismatch with the organization of the entire population, the emergence of a layer of professional managers.
3. Monopoly on the legal use of force, physical coercion. The range of state coercion extends from the restriction of freedom to the physical destruction of a person, which determines the special effectiveness of state power. To carry out such an imperious method as coercion, the state has special means (weapons, prisons, etc.), as well as bodies - the army, the police, the security service, the prosecutor's office, and the court.
4. The territory delineating the boundaries of the state. The laws and powers of the state apply to people living in a certain territory. Usually, it is built on the basis of the territorial and ethnic community of people.
5. Mandatory membership in the state. in a political party or public organization a person can be own will. State citizenship is mandatory and a person receives it from the moment of birth.
6. The right to collect taxes and fees from the population, which are necessary for the maintenance of the apparatus of civil servants and for the material support of the so-called budgetary sphere: the armed forces, education, science, culture, social security of citizens.
7. Claim to represent society as a whole and protect common interests and the common good. No other organization claims to represent and protect all citizens and does not have the necessary means to do so.

Revealing the content of the concept of "state", it is necessary to understand the functions that it performs. This is organizational and economic, political management, protection from external threat, cultural and ideological. They materialize in regulating economic life, protecting human rights, promoting the development of education and scientific and technological progress, ensuring the country's defense capability, and cooperation with other peoples.

In addition, in certain periods, the state acts as an instrument of national integration, stimulating the formation of nations or their consolidation, which is especially important today for Ukraine. Since different regions of the country have gone through their history, have different levels of national identity, their own, sometimes opposite to each other. priorities - a function of consolidating national interests, bringing them to a common denominator occupies an important place in the activities of the Ukrainian state.

15. The most important rights and freedoms of the individual. Role in the humanization of politics.

HUMANIZATION OF POLITICS - making politics oriented towards meeting the material and spiritual needs of a person.

The most important rights of the individual and the problem of their implementation in modern world

Today, for most countries, human rights are the highest value recognized by the world community. The term “human rights” itself is used in both a broad and a narrow sense. In a narrow sense, these are only those rights that are not granted, but only protected and guaranteed by the state, operate regardless of their constitutional consolidation and state borders. These include the equality of all people before the law, the right to life and bodily integrity, respect for human dignity, freedom from arbitrary, unlawful arrest or detention, freedom of faith and conscience, the right of parents to raise children, the right to resist oppressors, etc. In a broad sense human rights include the entire vast complex of individual rights and freedoms, their various types.

The modern typology of human rights is quite diverse. Their most general classification is the division of all rights into negative (freedoms) and positive ones. This differentiation of rights is based on the distinction between the negative and positive aspects of freedom in them. As you know, in a negative sense, freedom is understood as the absence of coercion, restrictions in relation to the individual, the ability to act at one’s own discretion, in a positive sense, as freedom of choice, and most importantly, as a person’s ability to achieve goals, display abilities and individual development in general.

In accordance with this understanding of freedom, negative rights determine the obligations of the state and other people to refrain from certain actions in relation to the individual. They protect the individual from unwanted interventions and restrictions that violate his freedom. These rights are considered fundamental, absolute. Their implementation does not depend on the resources of the state, the level of socio-economic development of the country. Negative rights form the foundation of individual freedom. Almost all liberal rights have the character of a negative right.

A typical example of the legal fixation of this group of rights and a generally negative (and liberal) approach to human rights is the US Constitution's Bill of Rights. Thus, its first article reads: “Congress shall not make laws establishing any religion or prohibiting its free exercise, or restricting the freedom of speech or press, or the right of the people to assemble peacefully and petition the government to stop abuses.” The term "should not" appears in almost all articles (except one) of this document. Almost the entire content of the Bill of Rights is aimed at protecting the individual from all kinds of unjust and undesirable encroachments on the part of the government.

Unlike negative rights, positive rights fix the obligations of the state, individuals and organizations to provide citizens with certain benefits, to carry out certain actions. All social rights have the character of positive law. This, for example, is the right to social assistance, education, health care, a decent standard of living, etc. It is much more difficult to realize these rights than negative rights, since doing nothing is much easier than doing something or granting it to every citizen. The exercise of positive rights is not possible without the state having sufficient resources. Their specific content directly depends on the wealth of the country and the democratic nature of its political system. In the case of limited resources, positive rights can guarantee citizens only "equality in poverty", as was the case in many countries of administrative socialism.

A more specific and widespread classification of individual rights, in comparison with their division into negative and positive ones, is their division in accordance with the spheres of implementation into civil (personal), political, economic, social (in the narrow sense of the word), cultural and environmental.

Civil (personal) rights are natural, fundamental, inalienable human rights, which are mainly in the nature of a negative right. They should not be confused with the rights of a citizen, which cover the whole range of rights provided by the state to persons who have citizenship. Civil rights are derived from the natural right to life and freedom, which every person has from birth, and are designed to guarantee individual autonomy and freedom, to protect the individual from arbitrariness on the part of the authorities and other people. These rights allow a person to preserve his individuality, to be himself in relations with other people and the state. Civil rights usually include the right to life, liberty and security of person, the right to protection of honor and good name, to a fair, independent and public trial, involving the protection of the accused, to the secrecy of correspondence, telephone, telegraph and other communications, freedom of movement and choice of place residence, including the right to leave any state, including one's own, and return to one's own country, etc.

In the constitutions of many states, civil rights are usually combined into one group with political rights. The reason for this is the predominantly negative nature of both, as well as the orientation of both types of these rights to ensure the freedom of the individual in its individual and social manifestations.

Political rights determine the opportunities for active participation of citizens in government and in public life. These include the human right to citizenship, voting rights, freedom of unions and associations, demonstrations and assembly, the right to information, freedom of speech, opinion, including freedom of the press, radio and television, freedom of conscience and some others.

In the USSR and other communist states, for a long time, a permissive approach to political rights dominated, which essentially nullified them, requiring the consent of the authorities to their implementation. In order for these rights to be freely exercised, their provision should be predominantly of a registration nature, i.e. the condition for their implementation should not be prior permission from the authorities, but only notification by citizens of the relevant authorities and taking into account their instructions to ensure law and public order.

Economic rights are directly adjacent to civil and political rights. They are associated with ensuring the free disposal by individuals of consumer goods and the main factors of economic activity: the conditions of production and the labor force: Up to the middle of the 20th century. the most important of these rights - the rights of private property, entrepreneurship and free disposal of labor - were usually regarded as fundamental civil rights. In modern legal documents, these rights are often referred to as economic rights and are classified as a relatively independent group, of the same order as civil, political, etc. rights.

A special place among economic rights is occupied by the right of private property. In the countries of the West and in Russia, until October 1917, this right was considered as one of the first to exist. civil society and ensuring individual freedom. In the communist states, however, it was generally denied, reduced to the right of personal ownership of items of individual consumption. However, the experience of all countries without exception has shown that the prohibition of private property is unnatural for a person. It undermines the motivation of conscientious initiative work, gives rise to massive economic irresponsibility and social dependency, leads to totalitarian dehumanization of society and to the destruction of the human personality itself. An individual deprived of a habitat that is not controlled by the state, means of production, opportunities to show entrepreneurship, falls into total dependence on power, is deprived of freedom and individuality.

In addition, the lack of property rights condemns the majority of citizens to poverty and destitution, since without legislative recognition and actual implementation of this right, an effective market economy is impossible. It is private property that is the smallest brick that makes up the entire complex building of the modern economic mechanism, including various types of group property: cooperative, joint-stock, etc.

At the same time, the experience of history testifies to the need to limit the right to private property, however, like almost any other right. Needs economic development, the growth of the democratic movement of the masses led to significant changes in the very interpretation of private property, to its socialization, placing under the control of the state. Few people today insist on the absolute nature of private property. Receded into the background, although generally preserved, the principle of inviolability of property. The laws of the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy and a number of other states establish permissible limits for private property and speak of its use in the public interest. The introduction of such restrictions in no way means a denial of the fundamental nature of the right to private property. For the post-communist countries, including Russia, finding the optimal forms of its practical implementation in the interests of the individual and society is truly key to the success of the reform policy.

Civil, political and economic rights are often referred to as liberal or first generation rights. All of them are in the nature of a predominantly negative right, protecting the freedom of the individual from encroachments by the authorities and other people and needing only protection from the state.

The rights of the second generation include social (in the broad sense of the term) rights. They are designed to provide material conditions of freedom and a decent life for every person. Their specificity lies primarily in the fact that the implementation of this group of rights by the majority of the population is not yet fully ensured by constitutional consolidation and state protection, but requires the creation of a whole range of material benefits.

The rights of the second generation are actually social, cultural and environmental. Taken together, they determine the obligations of the state to guarantee decent living conditions for each person, the minimum of material goods and services necessary to maintain human dignity, normal satisfaction of primary needs and spiritual development, and a healthy environment. At the same time, social rights are associated with providing each person with a decent standard of living and social security. These are the rights to social security, housing, work, health protection, education, etc.

Cultural rights are designed to guarantee the spiritual development of man. They include the right to education, access to cultural values, freedom of artistic and technical creativity, teaching, and some others. Environmental rights are the rights to a favorable environment, reliable information about its condition and compensation for damage caused to human health or property with environmental offenses.

Human rights have the character of an individual right. However, there is also a collective right. Its subjects are varied. These are families, production teams, sexual or national minorities, etc. In the last decade, in connection with the activation of nationalist movements, the question of the correlation of the rights of peoples (nations) to self-determination with fundamental human rights has become particularly acute. In many new states that emerged after the collapse of the USSR, Yugoslavia and some other multinational communist countries, the peoples of national-state independence began to be used by the ruling elites to incite national hatred, political discrimination and massive violation of the rights of citizens of non-indigenous nationality. Such actions are incompatible with the principles of democracy and humanism and are condemned by the international community.

Human rights and the rights of peoples are called upon to complement each other. Moreover, human rights are fundamental in this relationship, they have a higher value status. Without their observance, the rights of the people remain an illusion for the citizens themselves, used by those in power for their own selfish purposes. As noted in the final document of the Moscow meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the CFE in 1991, the observance of human rights is higher than the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of individual states.

The right of nations to self-determination is called upon to create state-legal guarantees for respect for human rights and taking into account specific ethnic, linguistic, religious and other collective interests in politics. With respect for human rights and the creation of strong political and other guarantees for taking into account the special interests of ethnic communities, their right to sovereignty and state independence in the modern conditions of growing integration and interdependence of peoples largely loses its meaning. This is evidenced, in particular, by the voluntary transfer by the overwhelming majority of European countries of their fundamental rights in the field of national-state sovereignty to the European Union and their development towards the creation of a single federal state.

Human rights are extremely diverse. While expressing universal human values, they also take into account the specifics of individual social groups, such as children, refugees, prisoners, and so on. In recent decades, within the framework of the CFE, a catalog of human rights has been actively developed, which details and significantly supplements the rights of the individual discussed above.

Human rights become a reality only if they are inextricably linked to the duties of human beings. In the constitutions of Western states, the duties of citizens were hardly mentioned until the Second World War, although in general they were included in legislation in one form or another.

The duties of citizens of democratic states usually include observance of laws, respect for the rights and freedoms of others, payment of taxes, obedience to police orders, protection of nature, the environment, cultural monuments, etc. In some countries, voting in public elections and conscription are among the most important duties of citizens. The constitutions of individual countries also speak of the obligation to work (Japan, Italy, Guatemala, Ecuador, etc.), raise children (Italy), take care of their health and timely resort to medical assistance (Uruguay). However, liability for failure to perform such duties is usually not provided.

The issue of liability for violation of the rights and obligations of the individual is of paramount importance for their practical implementation. Without defining the specific responsibility of authorities, officials and individual citizens in this area, the constitutional fixation of human rights turns into nothing more than a beautiful declaration.

In order for them to become a reality, a whole range of public guarantees is also needed. These include material (financial resources and property), political (separation of powers, the existence of an independent opposition, courts, media, etc.), legal (democratic legislation and the judiciary) and spiritual and moral (required educational level, access to information , democratic public opinion and moral atmosphere) guarantees.

The practical implementation of the entire complex of human rights is a complex, comprehensive task, the degree of solution of which directly characterizes the level of development, progressiveness and humanism of both individual countries and the entire human civilization. In the modern world, the observance and ever richer concrete content of the rights of the individual are the most important criterion for domestic and international politics, its humane, human dimension.

Through respect for human rights, the supreme value of the individual is affirmed in individual states and the world as a whole. Within individual countries, their observance is a necessary condition for a healthy economic and social development, triumph in the politics of common sense, prevention of destructive totalitarian and other experiments on peoples, aggressive internal and foreign policy. As early as 1789, in the preamble of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, it was noted that "ignorance, neglect and disregard for human rights are the only cause of public misfortunes and corruption of governments." And although modern science is not so categorical, notes other causes of social disasters, she also considers respect for human rights to be the most important condition for the well-being of society.

So far, not all states of the world recognize human rights. Some politicians and theorists argue in particular that they correspond only to the realities of Western society based on individualism and are not applicable to many third world countries in which collectivist relations between people prevail and other moral values ​​prevail. We can only partly agree with this argument. The experience of mankind shows that the economic and social development of countries entails the growth of self-consciousness and individuality of a person, his desire for freedom and respect for human dignity, i.e. to the observance of human rights. The latter, in turn, contributing to the emancipation and self-realization of the individual, stimulates social progress. Therefore, taking into account national realities, the ever more complete realization of the rights of the individual is the common task of mankind.

The universal applicability of the concept of human rights is often called into question by referring to the devastating consequences that their recognition by the state can have in situations of widespread hunger, poverty, disease and illiteracy, or in situations of acute conflict. In such cases, granting freedom of action to all social groups can allegedly have a number of negative consequences for the majority of the population: destabilize society and lead it into a chaotic state, prevent the concentration of efforts on solving the most pressing social problems, and contribute to the establishment of unlimited domination by the most cohesive and influential groups. Therefore, in underdeveloped and acutely conflicted countries, the most effective and expedient form of government for the entire people can only be a strong authoritarian government that grants rights to citizens only in a limited form and at its own discretion.

Of course, there are no rules without exceptions. In emergency situations, the state has the right to restrict the freedom of citizens. However, such situations are usually short-lived. Under normal conditions, even in underdeveloped and acutely conflicted countries, human rights are the most important guarantee against abuse of power, a condition for finding public consent, establishing peaceful relations and cooperation with other countries.

On the scale of the entire world community, the observance of human rights is the most important guarantee of building international relations on truly humanistic, moral principles, of preserving and strengthening peace. There is a direct correlation between the respect for human rights by an individual state and its foreign policy. The unleashing of wars, a gross violation of international law, is usually associated with the violation by the government of the rights of its own citizens. So it was in Nazi Germany, and in the USSR, and in Iraq, and in a number of other states that unleashed aggressive wars or undertook rude predatory actions. Taking all this into account, the OSCE participating States do not view the observance of human rights as a purely internal matter of each individual country, but as a subject of their common concern and collective responsibility.

Respect for the rights of the individual contributes to the strengthening of trust between peoples, creates a favorable atmosphere for versatile human contacts and cooperation, and introduces a moral principle into international relations. Without a common humanistic value and legal base, created by respect for human rights, it is impossible to bring peoples together and integrate them.

Ensuring the rights of every person, regardless of state, national, racial and other differences, is the path to the cosmic rationality and morality of mankind. Throughout human history, reason and morality have characterized to a greater extent individual people than mankind as a whole. This is convincingly evidenced, for example, by numerous destructive wars, thoughtless, barbaric treatment of nature, and so on. Respect for the rights of each representative of the human race can serve as the initial principle of building earthly civilization on the basis of reason and humanism. It allows the individual to be a conscious and free creator of his own private and public life, painlessly and constructively resolve conflicts arising from the inevitable conflict of interests, opinions and value orientations of people, prevent abuse of power and put it at the service of man and mankind.

From time to time political society experiences a general crisis. Whole organization political society and the behavior of its citizens are inadequate to the changes that have taken place in the world - for example, the onset of the Information Age. Then the psychological and political reconstruction of the entire political consciousness and behavior of the population of the state begins. Then the parliament carries out a purposeful revision of the legal base of the state, the government begins the intellectual expansion of new ideas, the army carries out physical suppression of centers of opposition to changes, and so on. However, the situation is often complicated due to a lack of resources for change: intellectual, informational, technological, financial, human. Then the process of rebirth of some or all political communities and their functions begins. Political communities begin to perform their functions on the principle of "the other way around": to do what they are designed to prevent.

4.1. The rebirth of the behavior of a group of communities, policy makers.

in the policy creators group. Advice due to the inability to solve problems within the framework of the current law, organizes coup(a radical change in the life of society) or a sharp turn, a turning point in the development of society. An example of a political upheaval carried out by the supreme state council can be the history of the NEP in the USSR, when, after the death of Lenin, according to Zinoviev, “the party was in a fever ... a crisis broke out in the party ... a coup was brewing.” On July 20, 1926, a rapidly growing political upheaval began. The NEP was brutally suppressed. Among the most famous coups in the history of Russia are the reforms of Nikon (1654-1676), the overthrow of Sophia (1689), the exile of Menshikov (1727), etc.

meetings covers a crisis when, due to disagreements, it gets into a quandary. (The actual meaning of the term “crisis” in Greek is “judgment”). When in crisis, the assembly hinders the functioning of the political system. Political crises are diverse - a crisis of politics, power, government, parliament, crises in relations between the legislative and executive authorities, a crisis of confidence, etc. Russian psychological and political crises are traditionally referred to as troubles (the death of Boris Godunov in 1605, the deposition of Vasily Shuisky in 1610, etc.). A classic example of an assembly in Russia is the "seven boyars", the "triple leaders", the government of Trubetskoy and Pozharsky.

When nation there is a sense of the danger of losing the living space, it carries out revolution(a radical change in the socio-economic structure of society, or, in other words, a deep and qualitative change in the development of society (in the mode of production, in various fields of knowledge). A revolution is always the fruit of national politics. A revolution is aimed at changing the system of power in such a way that life the path of the nation was fully represented in science, culture, economics, state law.There is a connection between the psychological and political development of the nation and its ability to carry out a revolution.

The audience, desperate to find an explanation for what is happening by methods of proof, transforms his misunderstanding into judgment seat. For example, Tomsky told Rykov about Preobrazhensky: “You see, he read a hundred and fifty times in Marx’s Capital the chapter on primitive capitalist accumulation in the 16th century, and it unfortunately clogged his brain, hence his incurable head constipation. Well, yes, his whole theory is from this constipation "(Valentinov V., 1991.). Reference: all three were shot.

4.2. The rebirth of the functions of a community group, policy executors.

Frustrated with a failed project team, resorts to coup- an attempted political coup initiated by a small group of people. The psychology of the putsch is rooted in the solid unity of the motive and action of the members of the "team", united by a single will. A team should be distinguished from a group. The team has a rigid structure, team members have strictly defined responsibilities that overlap to a small extent. The team is provided with instructions and meaningfully acts with partners and tasks. The team is characterized by courage, determination, endurance and cruelty. The team is characterized by stability, manifested in workable activity and volitional acts.

Government, being unable to carry out its plans, degrades to corruption: criminal activity in the sphere of politics, which consists in the use by officials of their rights and power opportunities for the purpose of personal enrichment. Typical forms of corruption are bribery, bribery for the legal and illegal provision of benefits and advantages, protectionism - the promotion of workers on the grounds of kinship, community, personal loyalty and friendly relations. The psychological causes of corruption in the government lie in the discrepancy between the intellectual and strong-willed qualities of its corrupt members and the extremely complex professional tasks they solve. These tasks are so complex that they defy the classification (taxonomy) adopted for the most complex technical systems. In fact, their decision is of such a class of intellectual professional management activity that it represents a value in itself that surpasses any benefits that can be obtained for its implementation.

Army, disagreeing with the new project of political power, resorts to rebellion- armed uprising against it. Rebellion is a manifestation of political resistance on the part of the power structures of the state - the army, police, security services. The leading psychological characteristic of the army is its stability, both at rest (in peacetime) and during combat operations (on the battlefield). The ability to maintain a given direction of activity, prescribed patterns of behavior, appearance, address, regardless of the support or resistance that it meets - determines the quality of the army. If the army is psychologically stronger than the political leadership of the state, then its control is lost: it leaves the given state of equilibrium - a rebellion begins.

Labor team due to the impossibility of performing its activities, resorts to strikes- struggle in the form of collective termination of work at one or several enterprises. Typical strikes: warning, rolling or stepped, vice versa (continuation of work despite the closure of enterprises), periodic, intermittent (rolling from workshop to workshop, paralyzing the work of the enterprise), strikes of zeal (or work strictly according to the rules), etc. Labor activity is formed at great cost by all institutions of state power. Its destruction is the most powerful social catastrophe that can befall a society. Start the wreck Russian Empire put the strikes, which began on January 11, 1916. Strikes destroy the most valuable asset of the state - labor resources, which are very vulnerable and unprotected from political upheavals.

4.3. The rebirth of the functions of a community group, policy disseminators.

They start doing the opposite. AT parties internal struggle begins. Those who disagree with the majority of the party are subjected to ostracism(exile, isolation in ancient greece citizens dangerous to the state, by secret ballot, made by potsherds on which the names of those expelled were written). What is happening in modern political life is not called ostracism, but more euphonious names are found for it: expulsion from the party, removal from the leadership, resignation, dismissal, reduction, retirement, departure, arrest, conviction, execution, disappearance missing - a whole arsenal of words and actions. This deprives the ostracized person of the opportunity to influence the political life of society. Exile physical, or informational, or material, or administrative extends both to individuals and to entire nations. In Russia, ostracism was called disgrace. Menshikov, Suvorov, Speransky, Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Pyatakov, Radek, Rakovsky, N. Khrushchev, G. Romanov, etc. were its victims. etc. In Germany, Hitler's associates - Rehm, Brückner, Ludendorff, Strasser, Graefe and others - were subjected to severe ostracism in a similar way. It will not be difficult to find many more examples of this almost childish punishment, which acquires a terrible appearance in politics.

Parliament, faced with insoluble political problems, exposes opponents to obstruction- a protest in the form of disruption of the discussion. The disruption of the meeting is carried out by creating noise, making long, irrelevant speeches, endless discussion of the rules, etc. The adoption of a decision undesirable for the minority is not allowed or delayed. A classic example of political obstruction is the controversy near the podium on June 9, 1989 at the 1st Congress people's deputies USSR. S. speaks, G. presides. The following dialogue takes place: - “G. All the same, finish, S. Two regulations have already been used. - S. I’m finishing. I omit the arguments. I’m missing a lot. Expired. Please excuse me. That's all. - S. I insist. - G. That's it, Comrade S. Comrade S., do you respect the congress? All right, that's it. - S. (Inaudible) "etc. (First Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR. Verbatim report. Vol. 111. P. 328).

small group, a non-political formation, however, also becomes a participant in political exacerbation. In a small group develops conflict due to assessments of the political situation - a clash of opposing forces and interests, strife, disagreement, a dispute threatening complications. It appears in the form of: 1. an intrapersonal conflict, which is a clash between approximately equal in strength, but oppositely directed interests, needs, inclinations, etc., 2. In the form of an interpersonal conflict, which is defined as a situation where actors either pursue incompatible goals and realize conflicting values, or, at the same time, in a competitive struggle, they strive to achieve a goal that can only be achieved by one of the parties. 3. In the form of an intergroup conflict, when the conflicting parties are social groups pursuing incompatible goals and hindering each other in their implementation. An example is the political conflicts between the authorities and small groups in the 50-90s of the 20th century: with the movement for human rights (A. Ginzburg, A. Amalrik, V. Bukovsky, A. Sinyavsky), with the movement for socio-economic rights (L .Agapova, V.Novodvorskaya, V.Senderov), with the Russian national movement (Fetisov, Shimanov, Vagin), with the Ukrainian national movement (Y.Gasyuk, P.Lukyanenko, N.Bogach), with the Orthodox (B.Talanov, D .Dudko), with national movements - Lithuanian, Estonian, Latvian, Armenian, Georgian, Crimean Tatar, Jewish, German, etc.

Public, in case of political difficulties, organizes conspiracies- a secret agreement on joint actions against the authorities. This is an agreement, a conspiracy of several individuals, acting individually or as leaders of political forces, to act together against someone or, less often, something in order to achieve certain political goals. A conspiracy is a special kind of political intrigue, characterized by maximum secrecy and a negative, destructive orientation. Conspiracies are aimed at the intellectual and moral suppression of the opponent, the political removal of the opponent. Conspiracies arise among people who are not directly related to power. The public environment for the conspiracy is the public, which has the right and opportunity to gather in public places: churches, theaters, exhibitions, festivities, pubs, etc. Persons who gather there to contemplate the spectacle, perform civil acts, familiarize themselves with works of art are called the public. The main purpose of such meetings is the dissemination of politics by the method of psychological imitation. They imitate a new manner of behavior, a way of understanding social phenomena, a style of dress, a form of expressing their feelings, an assessment of current politicians, a manner of communicating with representatives of the existing government.

4.4. The rebirth of the functions of a group of communities that obey politics.

They, on the contrary, are out of obedience. are going crowds who start disorder: mass popular unrest, which is an expression of protest against the authorities. Riots are the most primitive and wild form of political activity of the masses of people. They are accompanied by a violation of the regime of life, the order of traffic, a violation of the functioning of all support systems, and develop into vandalism. In the event that the authorities are unable to stop the riots, the crowd does not stop at the blood and attempt on the life of everyone who, for whatever reason, seems fit for it. The most cruel mockery of a person, the most brutal murders known in political psychology, were carried out by the crowd. The explanation for this is that the crowd is formed on the basis of individual passions and completely loses all subjective, personal qualities its constituent people, and even more so the qualities of individuality.

A family, which is primarily threatened by political instability, gives rise to mafia- a secret criminal family organization that uses methods of violence. The mafia carries out illegal, criminal influence on persons, state and public institutions and organizations in order to achieve illegal economic, political or personnel advantages. The ancestor of the concept of "mafia", Gentile, claims that it originated in antiquity and became a means of protecting one's own dignity, a support for the weak and a guarantee of compliance with human laws. The mafia helps its members with methods of terror and violence. This interaction of the family with society is not typical only of Sicilians, Calabrians and Neopolitans. In Russia, there is no clear division of mafia members into fratellos (brothers); capo (head, chief), consigliari (advisers), but the system of family, tribal, kindred support, protection from state power by the "call of blood" is present. In the event of a weakening of political power or, on the contrary, its excessive strengthening, it, family support, comes to life again along with the most ancient superstitions. Members of the family, clan, community are bound by mutual responsibility and the most primitive mechanisms of protection of "us" from "them" are put into action.

Rice. 6. Regeneration of the functions of political communities, causing doubts in a political person.

Population, realizing the danger to himself of a political crisis, defends himself from ethnic, socio-economic and other problems uprising- mass armed uprising against the authorities. From a psychological and political point of view, the decisive role in provoking it is played by the inadequacy of socio-economic changes, into which the bulk of the population cannot "fit in". This happened under Tsar Alexei, when copper money was issued instead of silver money and thereby caused mass starvation deaths. Then began a massive outflow of golotby to the Don, Volga, and then the uprising of S. Razin. It was attended by Mordovians, Cheremis, Tatars - the entire population of the state, in which the authorities violated the norms of cooperation and interaction "each with each."

Rally, as a premonition of the danger of a political crisis, is collected for a limited time, but as a rule, develops into demonstration- political action organized on the basis of jointness in order to expand its influence to the largest possible area. Demonstration is a spatial formation of individuals. The decisive factor in the passage of demonstrations is the character of the people participating in it. The habit of performing a demonstration in a certain way requires a long period of preparation and education of the participants. That is why the demonstrations in Russia after 1991 became violent and poorly organized.

Theme 5. Destruction of the "political man" in the struggle of the political society with the pre-political one.

Confrontation of political and pre-political society. In the state at all times, two opposing groupings of communities coexist simultaneously: political and pre-political. This is a confrontation between two incompatible philosophies of life, organizations of life that are fighting each other not for life, but for death. The struggle between them goes on with varying success. During periods of political crisis, i.e. weakening of the political community begins to dominate pre-political society. Then a lot of people, former citizens of the state, cheat on it and move into the ranks of criminal communities that take care of their security and safety.

The main reason for the confrontation between the political and pre-political community is a different attitude towards the state. Many people, deceived by the state, do not agree to live according to its norms and rules, which give advantages to some and deprive others of any chance. The fight is conducted by all available methods. Indirectly: members of pre-political communities regenerate the main political communities by infiltrating them. Directly: they create parallel pre-political communities that enter into direct competition and even war with political communities. Pre-political communities have their own, criminal meaning of life, their life values, their life goals. The fundamental difference lies in the fact that pre-political communities organize the efficient consumption of use value, but are unable to organize its efficient production.

The emergence, spread, strengthening of pre-political communities is one of the most severe sufferings of the state. Theoretically, it is possible, and international practice shows that the competition between political and pre-political society often leads to the creation of criminal territories in the place of former states - the defeat of political society. The political person suffers the most from this development of events. To support a political person, it is necessary to understand his ideas about who a person is, what is the value, what are the mechanisms of his behavior, how is the influence on human behavior organized and what is the content of his consciousness?

An open attack of a pre-political society on a political one took place on September 11, 2001 in New York, and was called an act of terrorism. The pre-political society has grown stronger thanks to the efforts of many pre-political communities pursuing a policy of extremism in relation to the state. The main tasks of extremism is to counter any form of political power, and the main goal of terrorism is the destruction of any political power. Terrorism will exist under two conditions: a) as long as its roots exist in the form of at least one of the 16 types of extremism, and b) when the modernization of power will not keep up with the changes in society. Such conditions were created with the beginning of global changes.

Terrorism is not an isolated phenomenon caused by the tactics of fighting “someone with someone”. And this is a challenge to state power and an attempt to create a society without a political system and without political power. This is a struggle against the existing world order, in which extremism cannot use heavy weapons, the open movement of large masses of armed people, and publicly declare their claims to power. Opportunities of this kind are created only by the state and are still only in the hands of legitimate authorities. Temporarily.

5.1. Perversion of the activities of policy makers.

5. Blatnyak appeared in the mid-1920s on Solovki. Blatnyak denotes the aristocrats of the penitentiary world, recognizing only the laws of thieves, and rejecting all other laws. They despise all non-thieves, including criminals. The thieves form a kind of closed club, which has an unwritten charter and law. For example, according to the old tradition, a thug does not attack a single woman with a child, or, while in custody, does not take away the rations from another prisoner. Any violation of the law is discussed collectively, and the guilty person is most often expelled from among the thieves or sentenced to death. It is not the one who wants to become thieves, but whom the thieves accept at the suggestion of one of them. The candidate goes through, often, extremely cruel tests. Nationality and religion does not matter.

Blatnyak penetrated into all spheres of the life of political society in the form of thieves' jargon. The dictionary of the modern criminal environment contains over ten thousand words and expressions. Although 300-400 jargon words are enough for a blatar to communicate. The thieves' jargon dictionaries are of educational interest only. They cannot be used as teaching aids for people who romanticize the world of thieves. Fenya is akin to a foreign language: you cannot master it just by reading a dictionary.

In the 20th century, about a quarter of the population of Russia went through prisons and camps, where criminal laws ruled and still rule. People who got out of prison involuntarily brought from there and spread in society the thug jargon, which became in Russia in the 20th century something like French for the nobles of the XX century. The country from top to bottom, from government officials to TV commentators, speaks in bad thieves' jargon, not realizing that this is the language of the enemy. It is the language of an alien worldview, an alien life position, an alien way of life hostile to political society. In an intellectual and moral sense, the use of criminal jargon is a betrayal, something like selling ammunition to your opponent right on the battlefield.

6. Dogmatism- one-sided, schematic, ossified thinking, operating with undiscussed truths. At the heart of dogmatism is blind faith in authorities, the defense of outdated provisions. Dogmatism primarily infects politics and science. Criteria system is not developed. Philosophical positions are absolutized and create rigid boundaries that guide science along a given path. Some scientific theories are absolutized, others are persecuted.

It is dogmatism, as a social disease, that is the main brake on the development of science and human society. Dividing the world into good and evil, people v into friends and foes, dogmatism at the same time inspires that for him there is no sphere of the unfamiliar, the unknown. Dogmatism clearly asserts that it knows what hell and heaven are, what communism, the rule of law, is. In reality, all nature changes every minute, and the changeable future from the point of view of reasonableness (perfection, optimality) is uncertainty, secret, secret, unfamiliar. This is indicated, among other things, by the factor of chance, which determined the theory of probability. The illusion of dogmatism fetters the search initiative, because religions link a better future only with paradise, conservatism conserves everything bad. Dogmatism is not limited to suggestion, but reinforces suggestions with threats. Dogmatism forms the most dangerous, worst mentality, which rejoices, for example, when an enemy is humiliated, in fear and suffers (subordinate, weaker, citizen of a different race, nationality, etc.).

7. Chauvinism best described by N.S. Trubetskoy. The positions that a person can take in relation to the national question are quite numerous, but they are all located between two extreme limits: chauvinism on the one hand and cosmopolitanism on the other. There is no fundamental difference between chauvinism and cosmopolitanism. These are two different aspects of the same phenomenon. The chauvinist proceeds from the a priori position that the best people in the world are precisely his people. The culture created by his people is better, more perfect than all other cultures. His people alone have the right to excel and rule over other peoples, who must submit to him, adopting his faith, language and culture and merge with him. Everything that stands in the way of this final triumph of a great people must be swept away by force.

The cosmopolitan, on the other hand, denies the differences between nationalities. If such differences exist, they must be eliminated. Civilized humanity must be united and have a single culture. The uncivilized peoples must accept this culture, join it, and, entering the family of civilized peoples, walk with them along the same path of world progress. Civilization is the highest good, for the sake of which it is necessary to sacrifice national characteristics. The psychological foundation of cosmopolitanism is the same as the foundation of chauvinism.

It is a kind of that unconscious prejudice, that special psychology which is best called egocentrism. Another kind of false nationalism manifests itself in militant chauvinism. Here the matter boils down to the desire to spread the language and culture of one's people to the largest possible number of foreigners, eradicating any national identity in these latter. But the originality of a given national culture is valuable only insofar as it harmonizes with the mental image of its creators and bearers. As soon as culture is transferred to a people with an alien mental structure, the whole meaning of its originality disappears and the very assessment of culture changes. The main fallacy of aggressive chauvinism lies in ignoring this correlation of any given form of culture with its specific ethnic subject.

8. BlackPR spun off from the institute of "public relations". All specialties in PR categorically deny their involvement in black PR. Serious public relations specialists are experiencing this situation very hard, and explain it by the fact that real PR and high-quality media can only exist in a democratic society, which has not yet developed in Russia. Therefore, it is too early to talk about the emergence of a full-fledged client for PR agencies in the Russian Federation, both in the political sphere and in business. Hence the black PR.

Those who do not deny "black PR" with humor set out, for example, the technology of a PR attack: 1. Drawing up a virtual portrait of the "client". Any information about a competitor is collected and the most vulnerable spots are found. Corruption, bribery of judges, betrayal of state interests, etc. are collected in one folder. They do not disdain the secrets of their personal lives, unconventional inclinations, hobbies and individual qualities: pride, greed, selfishness. 2) placement of the "portrait" in the press. The media plan of "black specialists" contains, as a rule, illegal actions, payment in "black cash". At the same time, good personal relations with the editor-in-chief are most valued - it is easier to negotiate this way. 3. Opposition to rivals. They perfectly understand that the opponent has his own connections with the media. If there is, it is necessary to agree on the "blocking" of response articles, that is, the publishing house receives money (about 100 thousand dollars) with the condition not to print counter-materials. Another option for "blocking" is the conclusion of long-term contracts for the placement of your advertising. 4. Accompanying the "victim". Conducting a course of "shock therapy", black masters keep their finger on the pulse of the victim: how he reacts to the information flow, what steps he takes. Every week, the headquarters hold a meeting, set goals and tasks, and adjust areas of activity. 5. The end of the story. The indignant public begins to call the poor fellow "hammered" by PR people to account. Well-known public and political figures speak out on a problem that has received a wide response in society (not without the initiative of "puppeteers"). The "heavy artillery" represented by the federal or local administration is being prepared for the decisive blow. 6. Curtain... Hundreds of thousands (!) of people who are educated, educated and qualified in the world are involved in such "activities" during the election period.

5.2. Perversion of the work of a group of communities - executors of policy.

1. Banditry- a crime against public safety under Art. 209 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, which consists in: a) the creation of a stable armed group (gang) for the purpose of attacking citizens or organizations, as well as the leadership of such a group (gang); or b) participation in a stable armed group (gang) or in attacks carried out by it. The very fact of organizing an armed gang is recognized as a completed crime, even if the gang has not committed a single attack. Participation in a gang is also a completed crime. In Russia, during the political crisis, banditry became, according to researchers, a “social power market” that covered the first, new Russian entrepreneurial one. When it became possible to make money on anything, banditry, extrapolated into social life, became a "terrorist bureaucracy", a specific form of social management. Bandit ethics, bandit laws and "concepts" became the Russian variety of "Protestant ethics". The society had to be managed somehow - that's why the bandits appeared. Life began to be controlled according to the laws of the "zone". Society has adopted a gangster ethic.

Banditry openly exists under the name of "roof" and is engaged in protecting the entrepreneur from the authorities, a competitor and a bandit, is a weighty argument in negotiations, establishes the necessary connections, transfers bribes, intercedes during disassembly and beats off "grandmothers". Roof - a kind of tax for the right to work in the territory controlled by the "owner", the one who "holds the bump" in the area. The amount of tribute is determined either as a fixed amount or as a percentage of the profits. It tends to develop into full control over the business through authorized persons, or even into the alienation of the business into the ownership of the bandits themselves. The basic principle of the roof: the "huckster" in life owes the "right guys" and is obliged to "endure".

The bandit "roof" is never looked for - it always comes by itself without warning. Each market, urban area, each type of illegal business (begging, prostitution, drugs, gambling) is controlled by its own group. For his money, as a rule, a “delovar” (i.e., an entrepreneur) can only count on the fact that he will not be terrorized by several groups at once. Today banditry is being transformed into a legal business everywhere.

The existing "roofs" can be divided into two main types: gangster ("blue") and state ("red"). "Red roofs", in turn, differ in departmental affiliation. They are “bureaucratic”, “Cop”, “COP”, “Chekist”, etc. The “Cop roof” appeared and gained strength in the era of the “tipping point” of pseudo-reforms, marked by an unprecedented increase in the state apparatus, the expansion of its rights and, accordingly, the duties of business entities

Researchers note the stages of the construction of "roofs" in Russia: 1986-1989. - the emergence and formation of gangster ("blue") "roofs" over the cooperators. 1990-1993 - mass process of "protection" of medium business in the conditions of privatization. Use in the form of "roofs" of private security companies. Merging crime with big business. 1994-1996 - big business finally goes under the "roof". The emergence of “red roofs” and the displacement of “blue roofs” by them. Creation and use as a cover of various associations and funds to support veterans of law enforcement agencies. 1997-1999 - complete displacement of the monopoly of "blue roofs" from big business. Most businessmen begin to use the services of both types of "roofs". 2000-2002 - firms begin to acquire several "red roofs" at the same time. The most common combinations are: customs - FSB, tax police - police.

2. Shadow economy, interacting with the state in economic and social processes, does not pay taxes on the income received as a result of this interaction. According to the most conservative estimates, since 1992, about 50-70 billion dollars have been exported from Russia annually, which is comparable to the annual volume of Russian exports and is 2-3 times higher than the country's foreign trade balance. It is claimed that $102 billion was the working capital of Russia's shadow economy in 1991-96. Other figures are also called, many times larger than those given above.

The main circle of the shadow economy is export-import operations. The range of export commodities that make money: aluminum, cobalt, nickel, ferrous metals, oil and gas. As a result of an illiterate or malicious policy of exporters, Russia annually loses up to 20-25% of foreign exchange earnings from exports. This was in 1994-1996. from 14 to 18 billion dollars a year.

But the shadow economy also includes an openly criminal economy, which includes the trade in weapons, drugs, alcohol, prostitution, begging, racketeering, illegal migration, etc. The shadow economy has given rise to phenomena colloquially referred to as "black market", "black PR", "black cash", "black court", "black electoral technologies", etc., which are not discussed, not taken into account, not controlled due to their complete inaccessibility for researchers. The shadow economy is a financial type of "guerrilla warfare against the state" and its institutions, including both economic methods and methods of physical intimidation. No one officially declared this war, no one admitted to it, and due to a misunderstanding, the shadow economy is not understood as a war against the authorities.

Rice. 7. Perversion of the functions of political communities, leading the political person into confusion.

The subjects of the shadow economy form a kind of pyramid. At its top is the criminal, criminal part - "authorities" and their workforce - drug and arms dealers, racketeers, bandits (robbers and hired killers), pimps and prostitutes. There are also corrupt representatives of the authorities and administration. In terms of numbers, all these individuals make up, according to various estimates, from 5 to 25% of the entire pyramid and have significant power and influence. This is clearly a criminal, anti-social part of the economic sector.

The middle part of the pyramid is formed by shadow business executives (entrepreneurs, merchants, bankers, small and medium-sized businessmen). These people are the engine of Russia's economic activity. It is they who are able to act in a normal society as the basis of the middle class of a market economy. Today they are forced to go "into the shadows" mainly because the costs of their activity under the "rules of the game" created by the authorities in the economy exceed the corresponding benefits and incomes. Against the backdrop of the wholesale plundering of the budget, calls to "pay taxes and sleep peacefully" look like a mockery. It should be noted that in comparison with the beginning of the 1990s, law enforcement agencies are really more successful in fighting racketeering (at least in its most "limitless" manifestations). But until now, the gangster "roof" provides small and medium-sized entrepreneurs with greater guarantees than government agencies.

The third group is represented by hired workers of physical and mental (intellectual) labor: they can be joined by small and medium-sized civil servants, in whose income, according to available estimates, up to 60% are "gifts" and other little-disguised requisitions from entrepreneurs and ordinary citizens. For this category of persons, unregistered activity is secondary (informal) employment. Their occupation in itself, as a rule, is not illegal, but due to various circumstances (legal and economic), these occupations are removed from the law "into the shadows." Thus, we are talking about potential allies of shadow companies of the second group. In total, the "pyramid" has 30 million people of the economically active population of the country, producing more than 50% of Russia's gross domestic product.

3. Hazing widely known in society as hazing and harassment of young soldiers by old-timers. It is generally accepted that hazing is an indispensable attribute of the army, known from time immemorial. Many researchers believe that hazing is the only way to rationally organize the army, to control young soldiers who are insensitive to other methods of influence.

"Other Influences" on Soviet army disappeared in 1958 with its reduction by one million two hundred thousand people, and the actual abolition of punishments for military crimes. Then the soldiers disappeared in the barracks, and “young”, “pheasants” and “old men” appeared. The “young” is obliged to do everything for the “grandfather”: peel potatoes, wash the floors, stand in fine clothes, rob and beg while on leave, give the booty to the “grandfathers” and fight. Globalization made its contribution to the development of hazing in connection with the introduction of technically sophisticated weapons into the troops. Most of the recruits are not able to master it, and suffering from an inferiority complex, they create a vicious system of values ​​- hazing. Others argue that hazing refers to a vicious system of values, where the value of a person is determined by signs that do not depend on the quality of the individual.

Hazing has gone beyond military units, infected schools, recreation camps, sports teams. According to professionals, the essence of school bullying is the gradual transformation of a “stranger” (newcomer) who enters this community into “one of their own”. This transformation of "alien" into "one's own" is achieved by the most sophisticated system of cruel tests (bullying, humiliation, beatings, requisitions, performing hard and dirty work for "grandfathers"). The existing elements of hazing are: dividing people into “us” and “them”, registration, alcohol consumption, strict distribution of personality status, arbitrariness, setting debtors on the counter, extortion, forcing them to do work for themselves, gambling, the presence of common girls.

4 Sabotage withdrawn from official circulation, although in Russia it is often used publicly. There are reasons for "withdrawal": the term was used by the Regulations on state crimes (SZ 1927, 12:123) and was included in UK-26 (Art. 58-14). His mention is comparable to the mention of "the devil at night", because the punishment for sabotage was "up to and including execution." The term acquired a legal connotation in 1919 due to the refusal of civil servants, specialists and peasants to cooperate with the new government. The newspapers of that time wrote: “Officials of state and public institutions who sabotage work in the most important sectors of people's life are declared enemies of the people. ... their names will be published ... lists of enemies will be posted ... they are outcasts and have no right to mercy .... they are declared under a public boycott .... whoever does not want to work with the people has no place in the ranks of the people ... ". Much later, E. Che Guevara argued that: “Sabotage is an invaluable weapon in the hands of peoples leading a partisan struggle. Organization of sabotage is the civilian underground aspect of partisan activity.

Sabotage is alive. In October 1999, slogans appeared at the Vyborg Pulp and Paper Plant: "Long live sabotage!" Today in the Russian Federation they began to talk about "computer", "military", "economic", "moral", "political" sabotage, without discussing the full depth of this phenomenon. For example, in the press in July 2001, the newspapers write: "The Deputy Prime Minister exploded: Why are you slipping this waste paper - this is uniform sabotage!" Due to the brutal suppression of sabotage, he disguised himself. It was he who determined the low efficiency of labor, which "killed" the USSR. The mass sabotage of workers was disguised in drunkenness, absenteeism, sitting in smoking rooms, fake sick leave, postscripts, deception of labor raters, difficulties with the introduction of new equipment and technologies, and other "folk art". Sabotage continues in modern Russia in the form of unwillingness and inability to qualitatively and quickly build, cultivate fields, produce modern quality products. At the beginning of the 21st century, the Yugoslavs were building in Russia, the Turks were harvesting bread, the Hutsuls were felling the forest, and the Finns were making roads. The country does not work well, because several generations of Russian citizens were punished with labor, and then they are rewarded with labor!

5.3. A perversion of the work of a community group spreading policy.

13. "Black Electoral Technologies" entirely built on undermining the faith of citizens in the justice of the political society. The Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Sciences of the Russian Federation was forced to publish the book “Information and Psychological Security of Election Campaigns”, ed. Brushlinsky A.V. (killed at the entrance of his house in January 2002) and Lepsky V.E. (M., 1999). They cite the provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, where the bearer of sovereignty and the only source of power is its people, and the highest direct expression of power is a referendum and free elections. They write that the widespread use of dirty electoral technologies poses a real threat to the loss of power by Russian citizens and the interception of these powers by various groups that manipulate voters in the interests of their corporate goals.

Black electoral technologies are based on the latest achievements of science that study methods of changing the consciousness and behavior of a person without his control. That is why legislation, as an extremely inertial system, which is served by deputies who are poorly versed in the science of manipulating the motives and actions of people, cannot oppose anything to the substitution of elections by manipulating the minds of citizens.

Non-specialists think that electoral technologies are reduced to dirty technologies, believing that they are: negative campaigning, campaigning not “for”, but “against”, litigation, bribery, planting and concealing ballot papers, blackmail, bribery, administrative pressure, etc. P. platitudes. In fact, the list of platitudes is long and resembles the arsenal of the civil war: these are administrative technologies from the redrawing of electoral districts to direct pressure on voters. Moreover, much more powerful and not harmless means are used. Indirectly, this is manifested in the de-ideologization of elections, i.e. in their content poverty, the lack of fresh ideas, the similarity of the programs of the candidates, the use of extremely abstract slogans.

All this: signs of the substitution of the conscious - the unconscious, political thinking - pre-political emotions. If we compare the danger of such a substitution with the danger of a direct lie, then this is a comparison of the danger of radioactive radiation (which is invisible) with the danger of getting hit with a fist (which is obvious). All commercial and political pressure on the behavior of the masses of people is entirely based on the mechanisms of the psychology of the unconscious. The vast majority of voters only suspect that they are all objects of manipulation of their minds and behavior.

14. Sectarianism- a collection of various religious sects that are at odds with the official church organization. A sect is a doctrine that creates a closed group that opposes the official church. This definition is based on the qualifications of the Soviet era. However, back in 1827, “falling into sectarianism” began to be punished in Russia as criminal offense. Moreover, it could not even be a religious group of people who are isolated, closed political, literary, and other like-minded people. The attitude towards sects that never call themselves that is always debatable. Until 1928, sectarians were perceived as victims of the tsarist regime and the official church. In 1923 there was even a secret circular proposing an end to repression against sectarian organizations. However, in 1928, N.I. Bukharin laid the foundation for the fight against sectarianism, as the main enemy of the Soviet regime. Among them were the Mennonites, Baptists, Evangelicals, Adventists, eunuchs, Khlysts. He stated that the sectarians unite more young people in their ranks than the Komsomol. (Savin A.I., Infernal enemy. To the Protestant churches in the Siberian press 1928-1930 "Sibirskaya Zaimka. 1999.)

15. Thief in law- a person belonging to the underworld, observing the thieves' law. Otherwise, he is a recidivist professional who has never worked anywhere in his life and lives according to the laws of the criminal world. This law requires him to obtain money for living by criminal means, most often by theft. A thief in law is forbidden: to start a family, to kill (although in exceptional cases, during a thieves' showdown, he is obliged to defend his life himself). The thief in law does not go to a wet business: for this there are special people who, at the direction of authority, are obliged to carry out the sentence as soon as possible, if this concerns a representative of the underworld who has violated the thieves' law. A thief in law must be a teetotaller. For him there are no nationalities. Besides, they are all out of politics. They are forbidden to steal from their brother, inform, use drugs. According to the old law, a thief in law should not be at large for more than a year.

Most experts believe that thieves in law appeared in the early 30s. They say that the huge, numbered army of prisoners in the camps needed their generals, in the levers of internal control. The appearance of leaders was welcomed by everyone: both the administration of the camps and the prisoners themselves, especially the political ones, who suffered from the criminal fraternity. Only after the Great Patriotic War the order of thieves was called organized crime and declared war on them. By the end of the 1950s, only 3% of the members of the former order of thieves remained in the USSR. With Perestroika, the renaissance of thieves in law began, which changed the meaning of "thief in law" and the "law" itself. According to official data, there are more than 100 thieves in law in Moscow alone, and there is information about 400-500 lawyers in file cabinets.

The Order of Thieves has created a whole state in a country where, according to the written rules, absolutely all the behavior of its members is regulated. Composition: boys (denials, sympathetic to thieves), sixes (general utilities, security), lightning rods (taking responsibility for the actions of the thief in law), bulls (direct executors of punishments for the thief in law), torpedoes (suicide bombers of the criminal world, performing the task at any cost, even at the cost of their lives), omitted (roosters, daisies, wafflers who do all the nasty work and are deprived of absolutely all rights): all this is the camp servants of thieves in law. They keep the peasants in subjection, people who are far from criminality, who have been convicted for the first time. Signs: playing cards: tertz, point, seka, rams, borax are required - if you are not a player, then at best you are a man. Cards are the arbiters of thieves' destinies: in one night some become rich, others were ruined, maimed, killed, made into a rooster or parashnik. But they continue to be played, therefore they are obliged to do this. Thieves' jargon, which in its power is comparable to another foreign language.

"Raspberries" have a connection with the help of a messenger who is untouchable. Letters are encrypted, one of the varieties is thieves' jargon. There is the concept of a "road" - a thieves' communication channel, through which experienced criminals receive comprehensive information in prison on any issue and any person during the day in any place. Occupations: more than thirty "kinds of activity" - burglars, snifers, teddy bears, hijackers, gopniks, liquidators, pickpockets, sharpers, puppeteers, farmazons, pancake bakers, etc. However, the traditional classification of the occupations of thieves in law has undergone significant changes under the pressure of globalization. The ideology remained, the occupations were new.

Organization: the thieves' clan resembles a huge enterprise with powerful capital, experienced personnel, regional offices and a charter. Manages the company thieves gangway. It has its own cash desks: camp and free. The Order of Thieves is developing in parallel with globalization. He spends huge sums on economic espionage. High-class specialists, most of whom received knowledge (and titles) at the schools of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the KGB, the GRU, conduct an “X-ray” of factories, concerns, insurance companies, MP, LLP, LLC, receiving all the data about the object. A dossier with information about the capacities of actual activities, assets, monthly and annual turnover, profits, the car of the head and his favorite cigarettes, as well as all the “compra” are placed on the table of the “godfather”. The analyst notes all the weak links and writes down the recommendations.

16. Betrayal- the problem is that someone (a person, a group of people, a people, a country) makes one or many people believe in himself, and then betrays this faith, endangering the lives and fate of those who believed him. The issue of the nature of betrayal has not yet been resolved, due to its extreme human significance and complexity. The study of the problem began long ago, with an analysis of the act of Judas Iscariot, and has not stopped to this day. (further according to S. Mikhailov. Justification of Judas, or the Twelfth wheel of the world chariot. Tablets.)

The alleged reasons for betrayal are self-interest- receiving bribes for betrayal (thirty pieces of silver), envy- Jesus did not leave people indifferent, for his words penetrated into the heart of anyone who was able to listen, disappointment- the unfortunate betrayed the one whom he considered an untrue messiah who deceived all hopes, satan's machinations- Satan entered Judas, surnamed Iscariot, and he went and spoke with the chief priests, how to betray him, true faith in Jesus and his teachings– Judas was the only one of the twelve Apostles who sincerely believed Jesus and who did not forget a single word of his prophecies. It was faith that pushed him to betrayal, for he was the only one who understood the meaning of earthly life and, most importantly, the death of Christ: Jesus gave the world a chance, and this chance consisted in his death. Faith and skepticism in conflict: Judas reasoned that “..if Jesus is indeed the Son of God, then my betrayal will serve to fulfill his prophecy and death through crucifixion and resurrection on the third day. If he turns out to be a deceiver and a false prophet, then let death be his punishment for deceit.” Direct indication of Christ- "…Who is it? Jesus answered: the one to whom I, having dipped a piece of bread, will give. And having dipped a piece, he gave it to Judas Simonov Iscariot. etc. However, many modern traitors do not think so deeply about the motives of their crime.

Nevertheless, the issue of betrayal is archaic for a political society. Therefore, prof. Sergeants V.F. in 1993, in the wake of the collapse of the USSR, for the reasons of the betrayal of its leaders, he wrote the book "Character and its destructive behavior (Phenomenology of betrayal)", where he pointed out that betrayal is a conscious evil. Citing as examples of betrayal the life of the hero of the novel M. Gorky Karazin, and the life story of the revolutionary provocateur E. Azef, he repeats the words of the Gorky character: “Only those thoughts are tenacious and effective when they are charged with feeling .... However, by itself, not fertilized by feeling, thought plays with a person like a prostitute, but is completely incapable of changing anything in a person.

Later analysts (for example, M.A. de Budyon, “The Fall of Russia”, Apologia for Betrayal) also write that a betrayal was committed against the masses in the USSR. But if a separate unconscious individual can have any response to betrayal, then for the mass as a whole, it is the only one - reciprocal betrayal. The level of betrayal is determined by the number of individuals who have become victims of this betrayal, and its highest level is the one at which the entire state is the victim. The persistent use of alcohol is, among other things, a kind of veiled protest of an unconscious individual against those in power. Betrayal is no longer perceived as an extreme vicious act. In the service of their state, public duty: many traitors in the civil service work for anti-state structures. Others, having left the civil service, do not consider it vicious to use access to state secrets, methods of work to serve in anti-state formations.

Betrayal as a rejection of faith in one's country, in one's people, in one's own state, in oneself makes people unable to distinguish between virtues and vices, ends and means, facts and fictions, in general, to distinguish between one's own and another's. Therefore, according to some analysts, perhaps in the XX! century, a new civilization will emerge that has preserved the Russian language and the Russian phenotype, but it will have the same relation to the former Russia as present-day Iraq to Babylon, or Ancient Egypt to the current Arab republic in the Nile Delta.

5.4. Perversion of the activity of a group of communities that obey politics.

9. Drug business– gives rise to a whole strategy of counteracting the political society, consisting of phenomena with the root “drugs”: the drug market, drug chemistry, drug culture, drug music, drug philosophy, drug religion, etc. The drug business claims complete and unconditional power not only over the personality of each of us, but also over society. As an economic phenomenon, this is an organized business, from the point of view of morality and law, it is always an organized murder. The annual volume of drug sales in the world is at least 300,000 thousand tons. The income of the drug mafia in the world is estimated at a colossal figure - 600 billion dollars. Money is the most significant force. US spending on the anti-drug campaign is $1 billion annually.

Protecting the public about the drug business is more expensive than protecting the program from a nuclear strike star wars. Humanity has never had to solve such non-traditional problems before. The situation is becoming more and more catastrophic. According to US photo intelligence, from 1988 to 1996, opium production in the Golden Triangle (Burma, Laos, Thailand) and the Golden Crescent (Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan) doubled. It is not possible to reduce the area under crops of drug-containing plants because of the insurmountable resistance of drug groups and peasants. The drug business is making full use of the scientific and technological capabilities that underlie globalization. Laboratories for the production of drugs are located in truck vans (70 kg of cocaine per day), the share of synthetics MDA, MDMA is growing rapidly. In the initial period of development, drug production technology used kitchen meat grinders, sieves, etc., but modern production is carried out in highly professional clandestine laboratories. 7-9 cents are invested in the production of one pill of "ecstasy", and it is sold in bulk for 8-15 dollars.

The success of the drug business is brought about by the inability of the authorities to control their own territory, the fear of the authorities of criminals, political instability, the excessive pace of global transformations that destroy the old institutions of power and do not have time to create new ones, the collapse of traditional social institutions, the corruption of the authorities, the liberalization of foreign trade activities, the lack of control over precursors (components without which the production of drugs is impossible), economic crises, and most importantly: the sympathy of the population for the opponents of the authorities (among whom the drug business is hiding), which even makes it difficult for the special services to work.

As a result, in Russia, starting from 1965 to 1999, the number of officially registered people who fell into drug addiction increased from 10 thousand people. up to 2 million people. If in 1992 there were 19 thousand crimes related to the drug business, then in 4 months of 2000 - 78531 (12% more than in 1999). Do not think that the drug business intends to continue to feed the hooligan or gangster environment. Globalization has created such conditions for it that in general it is about real power in the country and in the world. In the future: the likelihood of a complete transfer of power into the hands of the criminal community.

According to the UN, drugs account for 70% of all criminal organizations' profits. It is alleged that the drug mafia exercises total control over society, to the point that it contains drug treatment clinics and institutes (probably with a secret intention to control the developments of scientists). It is alleged that every fourth Russian bank launders drug money, which is used to purchase production facilities and real estate, and not only to lobby for certain laws, but also to create political parties, maintain clinics, support theaters, symphony orchestras, finance orphanages, etc. d. According to researchers, in 1996, 900 billion narco-rubles were spent on the purchase of shares in Russian enterprises in the fuel and energy complex of the Russian Federation. And in 1998, the annual budget of the drug business in the Russian Federation exceeded the milestone of 3 billion dollars.

10. Sex industry- this is crazy money received by some people for the desire of other people to be an animal for a few minutes. This is the payment for the “fleeing” from a political society to a pre-political one. Only on the Internet, according to the most understated estimates, it is 1.5 billion dollars and 450 million users. According to other data, out of 450 million Internet users, 60 million daily go online to various pornographic and erotic sites. Local research shows that 2.1 million French users (27%) regularly visit adult sites. In general, the pornographic sector of the Internet economy is the most profitable. Turnover in this sector reached $1.5 billion in 2000, and by 2003 it will be at least $3 billion.

The porn industry hides behind a “rating” screen, but in fact behind this screen there are millions (!) of real people literally destroyed psychologically and physically in its “production”. Most of the destroyed did not even have time to find out or understand what happened to them. The millions of people who serve as material for the porn industry are victims sacrificed on the altar of a pre-political society. They sacrifice their main human traits in order to be the “live material” of porn publications, porn films, porn Internet, porn spectacles, porn services. The material is the life of prostitutes and porn stars turned inside out. In a mockery of society, the porn industry defies its most sacred rules, forcing children aged 10 and under to act as such material.

In fact, the entire porn industry is a covert form of human trafficking. In all countries of the world, it brings the greatest income after drugs and weapons. According to the US State Department, about 700 thousand people become victims of the slave trade every year, mostly women and children. Between 45,000 and 50,000 people a year are smuggled into the United States alone. According to other sources, up to 4 million people fall into the hands of slave traders annually, and the turnover of this "business" is about 9 billion dollars a year. The collapse of the political society in Russia led to the fact that, according to the CSCE, after the collapse Soviet Union about 10 million (!) residents of the CIS were sold to brothels in Europe. On the territory of Russia, travel agencies, marriage service bureaus and private individuals are engaged in the export of live goods. Most often, instead of the easy work of a governess in one of the chic houses on the Adriatic coast, the girls are waiting for the trunks of cars in which they are transported across borders, a dirty Asian brothel, hard sex, contagious diseases, beatings to a pulp, blood, miscarriages, hunger.

According to psychologists who carry out rehabilitation treatment of girls released from captivity, almost driven to insanity, it is very difficult to wean them from the habit of eating paper, lime, sand, nibbling doors and window sills. It turns out that mechanical chewing distracts them from memories. The international sale of women for the sex industry is a type of slave trade that has become deeply rooted in Russia in recent years. Its scope has acquired a transnational character and is one of the main sources of income for international crime. It is most actively developing today all over the world and mainly because of the extreme weakening of political society. Moreover, the porn industry is vigorously exploiting the achievement of a political society for its purposes. So the income from the supply of erotic stories and porn pictures to handheld computers and other mobile devices in 1998 amounted to 1 billion dollars, and by 2003 this figure will reach 3 billion. The new market, according to experts, has great prospects, as the number of users of wireless devices is growing rapidly and soon fierce competition will unfold in this segment of the wireless market.

11. Vandalism- desecration of buildings or other structures, damage to property on public transport or in other public places (Art. 214 UKRF). This is just one of the forms of destructive behavior of people in the form of deliberate destruction or damage to someone else's property. Like all other forms of extremism, it has been known since ancient rome, the term was put into circulation during the French Revolution. There, vandalism is defined as a state of mind that causes the destruction of beautiful things, in particular, works of art. In England, a vandal is considered to be one who intentionally or out of ignorance destroys the property belonging to another person or society.

Due to state ignorance or malicious intent, the damage from vandalism is not given due importance. Although it is known that in the United States 200 thousand people are arrested annually for vandalism. And 15 thousand people. for arson. In Canada, 37% of Torontonians and 56% of suburban residents cite vandalism as a significant problem. The financial damage from vandalism in the Netherlands is 4 million dollars a year, the London Underground has a loss of 20 million dollars, and, in general, the damage from vandalism in the United States is estimated at 1 billion. dollars per year.

In Russia, in St. Petersburg, from 1989 to 1991, losses from the collapse of payphones by vandals increased 4 times. On the Moscow Railway in 1992 alone, 12,360 seats were destroyed, 73,800 sofas were damaged, and 49,800 square meters were broken. meters of glass. In St. Petersburg, 30% of the costs in the housing and communal sector are accounted for by the elimination of the consequences of vandalism.

Vandalism has no gender: in 1995, more than 30,000 women were arrested for vandalism in the United States. It is wrong to consider vandalism as an exclusively teenage phenomenon: according to the US, among those arrested, 25% were over 25 years old, and in Germany the proportion of vandals over 21 years old is 48.4%. Vandalism has no race, nationality, social class, is not caused by emotional problems, personal maladaptation, reduced intelligence. H

Experts consider vandalism as revenge, as a game, as a way to acquire. It differentiates between vicious, ideological and tactical vandalism.

12. Hooliganism - a gross violation of public order, expressing clear disrespect for society, accompanied by the use of violence against citizens, or the threat of its use, as well as the destruction or damage to other people's property (Article 213 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation). Lawyers argue whether hooliganism acts as a motive or act, is the object of hooliganism a public order, which is understood as a set of relations that normatively determine the behavior of people in the process of social life? It is assumed that hooliganism is (basically) a manifestation of the “I” ignored by society, which results in very specific actions, for which the subject must bear criminal and other liability. On this basis, many believe that it is advisable to exclude the article “Hooliganism” from the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation (Ivanov N., “Hooliganism: Problems of Qualification”, JobList.ru.)

Most specialists working in the system of education and upbringing do not think so. In their opinion, hooliganism is committed most of all by that group or person who is currently weak, depressed, oppressed, or considers himself to be such. A bully is a mask put on out of a need to compensate for the feeling of unfreedom. Historically, it turned out that since the beginning of the 1920s, there has been an unusually strong growth of hooliganism in Russia, sometimes turning into banditry. They talk about the subculture of hooligans, which is expressed not so much in verbal expression as in behavior. This subculture of the underworld successfully recruits young people into its ranks. The socio-economic conditions in which young people are placed limit the choice of ways for survival to the limit. This means that compensation for social humiliation will occur due to the growth of hooliganism, homelessness and banditry, and that there will be more and more marginalized communities (According to V, F, Lurie. "From homelessness and hooliganism to thieves' culture."

Hooliganism is developing, expanding, and today they talk about political hooliganism, and hooliganism on the Internet. The Internet, as a public platform, is becoming an object of hooliganism thanks to political technologists, in particular, the publication of preliminary election results “exit polls”. There are examples of "adult pictures" being shown on a computer news server because a skilled attacker has altered the server's alphabetic and numeric associations. It is extremely difficult to catch a "pest" in order to accuse him of malicious hooliganism.

Conclusions: Dialogue with a political person. Confident? Or doubters? Or confused?

The overall picture is bleak. The potential interlocutor is depressed. He comes to a situation of dialogue, having passed through the thickness of political and pre-political communities. In the interests of his security, man was forced to identify himself with each of the social environments where fate threw him. This means that he either voluntarily accepted or actively imposed on him the meaning of life, life values ​​and goals of life, which made him “one of his own” in a pre-political society.

This tactic of behavior is due to the many dangers that threaten him, crowned by - terrorism. Officially, terrorism is the commission of explosions, arson or other actions that create a danger of death of people, causing property damage or other socially dangerous consequences, if these actions are committed in order to violate public safety, intimidate the population or influence decision-making by authorities, and also the threat of committing the specified actions for the same purposes. (Article 205 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation). In fact, terrorism is the apotheosis of the triumph of the superiority of a pre-political society over a political one, a secret society over an open one, a criminal society over a civil one. In essence, terrorism is the substitution of political instruments of power for pre-political surrogates based on the physical suppression of an opponent: torture, murder, bullying. If political decisions, actions, from economic to military, are regulated by state laws, then pre-political ones are determined by the will of an illegitimate group of people who oppose the law openly or covertly.

Terrorism does not need to be looked for in the reports of foreign chronicles - it is "at our doorstep." Just one example: contract killings. According to the official (meaning underestimated) data of the law enforcement structures of the Russian Federation, if in 1993 - 1995 600 - 700 such murders were committed annually, then in 2000 there were already 386 of them, and in 2001 - 327. There are only a few political murders - for example, murder journalists Dmitry Kholodov and Larisa Yudina, Deputy Prime Minister Viktor Polyanichko. The concept of "murder for hire" was introduced only in 1995, when the number of "contract" murders in 1993 - 1995 annually amounted to 600 - 700 cases. And back in the 80s, only 20-50 cases of "murders for hire" were considered per year throughout the country. Even according to official figures, it is clear that pre-political communities rule in Russia: in the Russian Federation, on average, 34 contract killings are registered per 10 thousand people, while in the USA - 9. It does not matter that, according to unofficial data, 30 thousand contract killings are committed in Russia. murders per year. This is a war of a pre-political society against a political one.

Terrorism is the resultant action of all 16 forms of extremism in virtually all pre-political communities living a secret life. All pre-political communities, to one degree or another, adopted the experience of the criminal community. They, who had no previous convictions, did not recognize the thieves' law, but lived according to "concepts", agreed with violence as a form of existence. Although they do not follow the traditions of the old criminal world. They brought the ethics of permission into the business realm. conflict situations, competition from the criminal environment. The use of fraud, deceit, corruption, the use of criminal slang in the underworld, business, and politics is universal.

Due to the retreat of the political society, life in the country is regulated according to the rules and norms of behavior of the thieves' "law" and gangster "concepts". A social institution alternative to the state has emerged. Extremism actively counteracts the mechanisms of social control by the state, and has its own control mechanisms in the place of its deployment. Organized crime: gangsters, thieves in law and shadow businessmen become a state within a state, filling all the niches from which state control has gone. They consider power to be the most profitable business.

The arsenal of terrorism is growing along with the scientific and technological revolution. In addition to beatings, torture, poisoning, murders with bladed weapons, sophisticated scientific and technical methods appear, such as remote explosions, the use of poison gases, even technospheric accidents based on the latest information and other technologies. This is what has turned terrorism into the main opponent of any legitimate government that mistakenly considers the use of violence only its right and duty.

It is encouraging that, having “plowed the bottom of life”, having listened to the Fuhrers, authorities, gurus, Batek and other leaders of pre-political communities, a person needs even more a normal explanation of the causes of what is happening and options for eliminating these causes. The topics of the meaning of life, values ​​and goals do not seem to him an excessive luxury after living in an environment where human life is not highly valued and is determined by random factors. A political person knows that he is still alive, thanks to carefully guarded from everyone - his personal meaning of life, his values ​​​​and goals. Therefore, he agrees to discuss and strengthen the qualities that give him such a consciousness that he goes through all the trials of life.

As a result of mastering this topic, the student must:

know

• – the phenomenon and specifics of political behavior and participation;
• – main types of political participation;
• – the theory of political participation;
• – main features and trends of electoral participation in modern Russia;
• – features of electoral behavior in Russia;

be able to

• – analyze the motives of political behavior and participation;
• - uphold and defend their morals;
• – to identify the party preferences of Russian voters;

own

• – a basic methodology for assessing political behavior and participation;
• – a problematic field of electoral behavior.

Types of political behavior and participation

Political behavior is a set of reactions social subjects(social communities, groups, individuals, etc.) on the activities of the political system.

Political behavior is a motivated process; various types of political activity are embodied in it. Features of political behavior are associated with the specifics of the political sphere, which suggests that all "political concepts, ideas and words have a polemical meaning; they suggest a specific opposite, are tied to a specific situation, the last consequence of which is the division into friend-enemy groups, and they become an empty and ghostly abstraction if this situation disappears.

Modern political thought uses several approaches to explain the phenomenon of political behavior. The main areas include: economic, sociological, psychological. In a number of cases, their integration, complex use is possible in order to obtain an objective idea of ​​the "whole person" - the voter.

Political behavior can be subdivided into political participation and absenteeism.

Political participation - it is the influence of citizens on the functioning of the political system, the formation of political institutions and the process of making political decisions. American political scientists S. Verba and N. Ni emphasize that political participation is an instrumental activity through which citizens try to influence the government in such a way that it takes the actions they want.

Political participation includes:

• – electoral behavior (actions on delegation of authority);
• – activism aimed at supporting candidates and parties in election campaigns;
• - attending rallies;
• - participation in demonstrations;
• – participation in the activities of parties and interest groups.

The most detailed classification of types of political participation was proposed by the English scientist A. Marsh (Table 12.1).

Table 12.1

Classification of types of political participation according to A. Marsh

As can be seen from Table. 12.1, A. Marsh distinguishes three main types of political participation: orthodox, unorthodox and political crimes.

A. Marsh refers to political participation of the orthodox type actions that ensure the stable functioning of the political system, as well as the requirements imposed on it in legal forms. Actions that are not authorized by law or directed against the political system (protest behavior) are qualified as political participation of an unorthodox type. A. Marsh considers political activity with the use of illegitimate violence as political crimes.

A similar position is taken by W. Millbright (USA), who divides political participation into conventional (legal and regulated by law) and non-conventional (illegal, rejected by the majority of society for moral, religious and other reasons).

The first type he refers to voting, participation in the work of parties and election campaigns, participation in the political life of society, contacts with officials. To the second - participation in demonstrations, riots, strong protests against the immoral actions of the authorities, participation in protest rallies, refusal to obey unjust laws and political decisions. Non-conventional participation is carried out in non-violent active forms (demonstrations, pickets, rallies, etc.) and violent forms (terrorism, riot, etc.).

Political participation can be classified according to the degree or level of activity (active - passive). Based on the form of participation (acceptable and unacceptable) and the degree of activity (active - passive), four types of political participation can be distinguished (Tables 12.1 and 12.2).

Table 12.2

Forms of political participation

Political participation is often divided into the following types: autonomous and mobilization. Autonomous participation is a free voluntary activity of individuals pursuing personal and group interests. Mobilization participation is compulsory. Fear, administrative coercion, traditions, etc., become incentives for political activity. As a rule, mobilization participation is aimed solely at supporting the political system and its purpose is to demonstrate loyalty to the ruling elite, popular unity and approval of the current policy. Such participation is by no means a means of realizing group interests. In a certain sense, it can be called quasi-participation.

Of course, both types are ideal in the sense that in any society, in any political system, there are elements of both. In totalitarian and authoritarian regimes, the mobilization type of participation dominates. In democratic ones, it is autonomous, although there are elements of the mobilization behavior of individuals, for example, in election campaigns, the method of manipulating consciousness is actively used in order to influence the political position of an individual. One of the largest Austrian political scientists, who also taught at Columbia University and Harvard, Joseph Schumpeter argues that "the existence of parties and politicians indicates that the masses of voters are not capable of any other action than panic. They regulate political competition in the same way as the professional associations do. The psychotechnics of party management, its advertising campaign, slogans and marches are not decorations. This is the essence of politics." Let us consider in more detail some types of political participation.

The most common type is electoral behaviour. Its orientation is influenced, first of all, by the identification of a particular voter with a particular social group and (or) party. Psychological closeness to the group limits the range of political orientations and alternatives, making political choices easier.

Protest forms occupy a certain place among the forms of political behavior and participation. Political protest is an open demonstration of a negative attitude towards the political system as a whole, its individual elements, norms, values, and decisions.

Protest forms of behavior include rallies, demonstrations, processions, strikes, pickets, mass and group violent actions. The most common, explaining the causes and mechanisms of protest behavior, is the concept of deprivation. Deprivation - this is the state of dissatisfaction of the subject, arising as a result of a discrepancy between the real (or estimated) and the expected by him (the subject) state. When this discrepancy becomes significant, and discontent becomes widespread, there is a motivation to participate in protest actions. Factors of deprivation can be an economic recession, a sharp increase in taxes and prices, the destruction of standard norms and beliefs, the loss of habitual social status, inflated expectations, negative results of comparing one's own successes with the successes of others or with some "normative" state. An "explosion" of protest behaviors is more likely to occur during the transition from an economic boom to a deep depression, when people begin to compare their new situation with the previous one.

As political practice shows, discontent gives rise to protest primarily among those who have not yet lost hope of "breaking out into the people", who have repeated and reinforced attempts to improve their situation. Thus, protest behavior is more common among people whose situation has relatively improved than among those whose condition remains consistently bad. The activation of various forms of political protest is also possible during periods of economic recovery, when the growth of expectations can significantly outstrip the economic possibilities of satisfying needs.

However, dissatisfaction is an important, but not the only reason for people's protest behavior. Radical ideologies, slogans and symbolic actions, distrust of the political regime, loss of faith in traditional ways of expressing demands contribute to the growth of deprivation and the intensification of protest actions.

Common forms of political protest are rallies, demonstrations, processions, strikes. With a low degree of institutionalization, such actions can lead to riots, violence, and direct clashes with the authorities. That is why in many democratic countries the holding of mass political events is regulated by special laws that provide for a number of necessary measures (the procedure for notifying the authorities about ongoing events or for the organizers to obtain prior permission from the authorities to hold rallies, demonstrations, marches, etc.).

Violent non-conventional types of political behavior and participation include terrorism. The concept of "terrorism" should not be confused with the concept of "terrorist activity", which includes both terror carried out by the state against the people or politicians of other states, assassinations of political competitors, and terrorism itself. Terrorism is understood as the oppositional activities of extremist organizations or individuals, the purpose of which is the systematic or single use of violence. (or his threats) to intimidate the government and the population. characteristic feature What distinguishes terrorism from criminal offenses is the conduct of such violent actions that can plunge society into a state of shock, get a wide response, influence the course of political events and decision-making.

There are different types of political terrorism.

• - According to ideological orientations, right-wing (neo-fascist, right-wing authoritarian) and left-wing (revolutionary, anarchist, Trotskyist, etc.) terrorism are distinguished.
• - According to the goals pursued by terrorists, cultural and creative (exciting public consciousness with the help of bloody actions), rational (which is a means of political participation) and ideological (affecting the entire political system as a whole and its norms) terrorism are distinguished.
• - According to the historical orientation, terrorism can be divided into "anarcho-ideological", seeking to disrupt the traditional political system, the world of fathers, to interrupt historical continuity, and "national-separatist", seeking, on the contrary, to restore the world of ancestors, the former greatness and unity of the nation, independence and sovereignty, to win back lost territories, to avenge injuries and insults.
• – Religious terrorism is singled out as a separate type.

The methods of terrorism include: assassinations of politicians, kidnappings, threats and blackmail, explosions in public places, seizure of buildings and organizations, hostage-taking, provoking armed clashes, etc. Members of terrorist organizations are characterized by the desire to justify their actions with higher goals, the impossibility of otherwise influencing the situation. However, the motives for the involvement of terrorist organizations are most often completely different.

It would be wrong to explain political terrorism solely by the psychopathological traits of its agents. Surveys of detained terrorists show that there are few persons with psychopathological deviations among them. Terrorists are characterized by such personality traits as overstated claims, failures in mastering social roles, blaming others for their own failures, emotional underdevelopment, an increased degree of aggressiveness, a tendency to stress, fanaticism, and a lack of adaptation to reality.

Adaptation is a peculiar form of acquiring a habit by a person. The acquisition of a habit, emphasized I. P. Pavlov, from a physiological point of view, is nothing more than "the formation in the brain structures of stable neural connections, characterized by increased readiness for functioning and serving as the basis for the formation of behavioral acts", including, apparently, human social activity .

Many terrorists lack the ability to control themselves. The formation of the ability to self-control requires the constant presence of the volitional principle in the behavioral acts of a person. "Self-control, - T. Shibutani believes, - is a complex form of behavior that is associated with the ability to look at oneself "from the side", form, from the point of view of others, a self-image and adapt to their anticipated actions ". It is in a person's ability to self-control that the level of his social development is revealed. The exercise of self-control is designed to keep a person within the framework of social requirements and is associated with the constant overcoming of contradictions between personal desires, preferences and social obligations, moral norms generally accepted in a given society. Thus, self-control is a certain limitation of the personal in favor of the public and is the main condition for improvement, the process of which is correlated with the growth of a sense of responsibility, a sense of duty, etc. An important aspect of self-regulation of behavior is the desire to understand the position of others. Understanding the thoughts and actions of people does not mean reconciliation with their negative manifestations, on the contrary, it creates the conditions for a successful fight against them. We experience many misunderstandings in life only because we do not know how or do not give ourselves the trouble to consciously put ourselves in the place of others. The motivational "iole" of one person, to varying degrees, enters the motivational systems of other people, interacts with them. Therefore, the regulation of the motivation of a person is often mediated by the peculiarities of the motivation of another person. Developing the ability to understand the motivation of others, to take a different, even opposite, point of view not only facilitates communication, but also helps to anticipate people's behavior in a given situation.

In situations of insoluble problems, the struggle of motives, there is a need to rise above them, which helps individuals to increase their life stability in situations of uncertainty and crisis situations.

Participation in terrorist organizations is a kind of way to compensate for low personal self-esteem (due to a sense of dominance over others), a way to overcome feelings of loneliness, the formation of a sense of belonging, collective unity. In essence, a member of a terrorist organization is a radicalized marginal who has rejected the generally accepted norms of culture, creating and mastering the norms of a counterculture, a counterculture of violence.

The growth of terrorism is not directly related to the socio-economic situation in society. Of course, the crisis and the decline in production affect the spread of terrorist behavior, but the "splash" of terrorist acts can be observed in economically prosperous countries. The spread of terrorism is facilitated by the emotional and intellectual mood of society. Thus, the romantic perception of terrorism as a struggle for truth, justice, as a kind of "political Robinhood" serves as moral support for terrorists and contributes to the spread of monstrous crimes. A sharp rejection of terrorism as an exclusively asocial phenomenon is one of the components of success in the fight against it.

The shot at the St. Petersburg mayor F. Trepov, fired on a January morning in 1878 by V. Zasulich, marked the birth of political terrorism in the Russian state.

However, whatever goals may be used to justify political terrorism, it has been and remains one of the heaviest political crimes. Therefore, the problem of combating terrorism is recognized by the international community as one of the priorities.

Political participation is opposed to such a type of political behavior as absenteeism. Absenteeism refers to avoidance of participation in political life.(in voting, election campaigns, protests, activities of parties, interest groups, etc.), loss of interest in politics and political norms, i.e. political apathy. The absentee type of behavior exists in any society, but its growth, as well as the growth in the proportion of apathetic people, indicates a serious crisis in the legitimacy of the political system, its norms and values.

The reasons for absenteeism include the dominance of the norms of the subculture in the personality with the almost complete displacement of the generally accepted norms of culture. As a result, a person perceives the world, which is outside the framework of "his" subculture, as alien and (or) illusory. A high degree of self-interest can also lead to a loss of interest in politics. From the point of view of some political scientists, the ability of an individual to cope with their problems on their own, to defend their interests in private can give rise to a feeling of the uselessness of politics and, conversely, a threat to their own interests from more powerful groups gives rise to a desire to turn to politics as a means of defending and protecting their interests.

At present, the process of socialization is acquiring problematic features, due to the fact that "free" education leads to the fact that a person really becomes uncontrollable and therefore intolerant for society because of his constant desire to disregard others. It is no coincidence that such a person is in continuous conflict with others.

Political apathy can stem from a feeling of helplessness in the face of complex problems, distrust of political institutions, a feeling of inability to somehow influence the process of developing and making decisions. Absenteeism may be due to the collapse of group norms, the loss of a person's sense of belonging to any social group and, consequently, the goals and values ​​of social life, the lack of ideas about the relationship between politics and private life. Absenteeism is more observed among young people, representatives of various subcultures, people with a low level of education.

In modern Russia, the proportion of politically apathetic people in the population is quite large. This is due to the crisis of mass consciousness, the conflict of values, the alienation of the majority of the population from power and distrust of it, political and legal nihilism, and the persistence of faith in the "miraculous" coming of a great charismatic leader. The absenteeism of a certain part of Russian society is largely the result of the collapse of the myth about the speedy entry into the circle of highly developed countries and the expectation of an "economic miracle".

The role of absenteeism in modern Russian society is ambiguous. On the one hand, it is absenteeism that is almost the only stabilizing factor in a society in which there are no effective mechanisms for the peaceful resolution of social and political conflicts. On the other hand, there is a danger that, under certain conditions, a sharp transition from absenteeism to radical forms of political behavior is possible.

That is why the problem of involving the majority of the population in politics through institutionalized forms of participation remains relevant in Russia.

• Schmitt K. The concept of the political // Anthology of world political thought. T. 2. M., 1997. S. 296.
• Schumpeter J. Capitalism, socialism and democracy // Anthology of world political thought. M., 1997. S. 232.
• Pavlov I.P. Poly. coll. op. M.; L., 1951. T. 4. S. 428-429.
• Shibutani T. Social Psychology. M., 1969. S. 168.

The development of the internal political system, diplomatic relations between states increases the role of each person, his behavior in solving political issues. We learn what science understands by political behavior, and what properties it endows a political personality.

concept

Political behavior is a system of conscious and unconscious actions of a person who is the subject of politics.

It can be:

• the actions of individuals and mass demonstrations;
• spontaneous and organized actions.

Science highlights various ways political behaviour. This may be interaction with other people, government agencies, political parties. In addition, relations with all the listed political participants can be built in different ways: on the basis of mutual understanding and support, or rivalry, struggle.

What kind of behavior one or another participant chooses depends on his political interests and personal values. The motives of different groups of the population at the time of their inclusion in political life can be completely different.

A historical example of the confrontation of different political interests can serve Civil War in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, when the population of the country was divided into groups according to how they saw the future of the country. Some people were in favor of building a socialist state, someone was a supporter of the monarchy. All of them were ready to defend their interests by force of arms.

Forms of political behavior

There are many different forms of political behavior. In order to visualize all their diversity, we present a classification that reflects different aspects of political behavior.

We will pay special attention to two forms of political behavior:

• spontaneous political behavior;

It is one of the most dangerous, as it often leads to negative consequences. Its signs are: uncontrollability, various forms of aggression, a large role of an accidental leader.

• electoral political behavior;

This is a legitimate (recognized by the state and society) form of political behavior, the meaning of which is to participate in elections, referendums, express one's opinion on the issue of appointing candidates for public office. This choice is always based on the consciousness of a person, his views. But in some countries there is a problem of non-participation of citizens in elections. The reasons for this may be the low level of political culture of people, the lack of faith in the honesty of the election procedure, etc.

Society and the state cannot disregard the political behavior of people, since the stability and development of the political system largely depends on this, on which the security of people depends. In particular, the norms of state regulation prohibit such types of influence on politics as terror, armed clashes.

Another manifestation of state regulation of political behavior is the desire for organization (association into official groups - parties so that people can legally express their opinions), the spread of democratic ideas, political education, and special attention to the qualities of political leaders.