«BORROWING PROCESS AS A VARIETY OF LANGUAGE CONTACT Abstract. Relevance and goals. The relevance of the study is due to the consideration of borrowing as a pr...”

News of higher educational institutions. Volga region

S. V. Kudryashova

BORROWING PROCESS

AS A VARIETY OF LANGUAGE CONTACT

Annotation.

Relevance and goals. The relevance of the study is due to the consideration of borrowing as a process that does not necessarily manifest itself in the conditions of bilingualism, it primarily requires linguistic

contact. Borrowing is understood as a process in which elements of another language alien to the native language are not regulated by knowledge of the language from which they are drawn. In most cases, borrowed units are adapted to one degree or another at the phonological, morphological, lexico-semantic and stylistic levels, i.e. are modified in accordance with the norms of the recipient language. The aim of the study was to identify different views of domestic and foreign linguists on the concept of "borrowing", to analyze theoretical approaches to the study of types of borrowings and linguistic criteria for their adaptation in the recipient language.

Materials and methods. Linguistic scientific articles, author's abstracts and monographs served as the material. In the process of research, a descriptive method was used, which involves the interpretation and classification of the material, as well as an inductive-deductive method, which allows comprehending and summarizing the relevant theoretical material.

Results. The study made it possible to identify three main stages of adaptation of borrowings in the recipient language: penetration into speech, partial assimilation (borrowing), rooting in the language.

At the same time, it is often difficult to determine at what stage of the adaptation process a particular borrowing is. The process of adapting borrowings to different languages At different levels, it proceeds unevenly: a relatively small number of borrowings is characterized by the same degree of mastery at all levels of the language system.

Conclusions. The concept of borrowing in linguistics is multi-valued.

This phenomenon is studied in terms of adaptation of borrowed units, their changes under the influence of interference, as well as functioning in the system of the recipient language. The features of these processes can be due to both internal and external factors. Borrowing is a process characteristic of both the situation of bilingualism and monolingualism, when elements of another language alien to the native language are not regulated by knowledge of the language from which they are drawn. In most cases, borrowed units are adapted to one degree or another at all language levels, i.e. are modified in accordance with the norms of the recipient language.

Key words: language contact, borrowing, Spanish, Anglo-Americanism, adaptation.

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background. The relevance of the study is determined by consideration of borrowing as a process that is not necessarily manifested in bilingualism – first of all, it University proceedings. Volga region № 4 (36), 2015 Humanitarian sciences. Philology requires language contact. Borrowing is thought of as a process by which elements of another language, foreign to the native language, are not regulated by the knowledge of the language from which they are drawn. In most cases, borrowed units adapt to varying degrees on the phonological, morphological, lexical-semantic and stylistic levels, in other words, modified in accordance with the rules of the recipient language. The aim of the study was to identify different views of domestic and foreign linguists on the concept of “borrowing”, analysis of theoretical approaches to the study of types of borrowings and linguistic criteria to adapt them to the recipient language.

materials and methods. The data for the study included scientific articles, author's abstracts of dissertations and monographs. The study used a descriptive method, involving interpretation and classification of the material, as well as an inductive-deductive method to comprehend and summarize the relevant theoretical material.

results. The study revealed three main stages of adaptation of borrowings in the recipient language: penetration, partially acquisition (borrowing), rooting in the language. In this case, it is often difficult to determine at what stage is a particular borrowing in the process of adaptation. The adaptation process of borrowing at different levels of language is not uniform: a relatively small amount of borrowings is characterized by the same degree of development at all levels of the language system.

Conclusions. The concept of borrowing in linguistics is multivalued. This phenomenon is studied in terms of adaptation of borrowed items and their changes under the influence of interference, as well as functioning in the recipient language.

Features of these processes can be caused by both internal and external factors. Borrowing is a process, characteristic for the situation of bilingualism and monolingualism as alien elements of another language are not regulated by the knowledge of the language, from which they are drawn. In most cases, borrowed units adapt to varying degrees in all language levels, modified in accordance with the rules of the recipient language.

Key words: language contact, borrowing, Spanish, anglo-americanism, adoption.

The study of the issues of language contacts and the phenomena accompanying them, in particular the process of borrowing, has a great tradition in domestic and foreign linguistics. This issue is currently particularly relevant and attracts the attention of many researchers, since the end of the XX and the beginning of the XXI century. characterized by a significant expansion of international relations and increased language contacts, which are carried out both directly between speakers of different languages, and with the help of the media.

In a situation of intensive interaction of languages, changes occur in the system of one or both languages, or the appearance of common linguistic features, i.e. interference, or partial or complete displacement of one of the contacting languages. The most significant consequence of language contact is the appearance in interacting languages various types borrowing.

The study of the phenomenon of "borrowing" is a study of a complex of linguistic and extralinguistic problems, which include issues related to the interpretation of this term, types of borrowings, reasons and conditions for borrowing, changes occurring with borrowingHumanities. Philology 67 News of higher educational institutions. the Volga region with the words in the recipient language, etc. The term "borrowing" in linguistics is ambiguous. Thus, many scientists distinguish between the concepts of "borrowing" and "loan word", suggesting that the term "borrowing" be defined as "mutual influence of languages", other authors identify these concepts, arguing that words are most often borrowed.

Some linguists mean by borrowing the process, others - the result of the process. Many foreign linguists describe borrowing as "a process that results in the transition of a linguistic unit from one language to another" . In turn, others believe that borrowing is “elements transferred to another language, i.e. consequences of the interaction of languages ​​that can exist in this language after the interaction has ceased.

The closest task of our study is the definition of borrowing, which belongs to I. G. Dobrodomov: “Borrowing is an element of a foreign language (word, morpheme, syntactic construction, etc.) the process of transition of elements from one language to another"

By borrowing, we mean foreign language elements, primarily words, since borrowing occurs most often at the lexical level. In addition, borrowing is the movement of lexical units from one language to another with the subsequent adaptation of borrowed lexemes in the system of the recipient language. The process of lexical borrowing is undoubtedly wider than grammatical, derivational or phonetic borrowing.

As a result of long historical interaction and mixing of languages, borrowings occupy a significant place in the vocabulary of many languages. Borrowing channels can be both oral and book, written.

With oral borrowing, the word undergoes more changes in its appearance than with written borrowing. If a word enters the language of another people while simultaneously borrowing a new object or concept, then the meaning of this borrowing does not change, but if a new word enters as a synonym for existing words, the meanings are separated between them and shifts in the original semantics are observed. A morphologically complex borrowed word, when transferred to the recipient language, is usually subjected to simplification and is perceived in this language as simple and non-derivative.

Thus, borrowing in the broad sense is the process of moving various elements from one language to another and their adaptation in the borrowing language, and in the narrow sense, language elements that are moved from one language to another and function in it. We can talk about borrowing a word (the most frequent and typical case of borrowing), borrowing a phoneme (the most rare and particular case, depending on the degree of contact between two languages), borrowing a morpheme (usually as part of a word), syntactic borrowing (construction of phrases in a language is influenced by foreign syntactic constructions) and, finally, about semantic borrowing (the appearance in the word of the meaning "under pressure" of a foreign language sample - semantic tracing).

university proceedings. Volga region № 4 (36), 2015 Humanities. Philology The most active process of borrowing occurs at the level of vocabulary, this is due to the need to nominate new realities, concepts and phenomena in the recipient language.

It is believed that the process of borrowing, unlike other phenomena accompanying language contacts, in particular, mixing and switching codes, does not imply a deep knowledge of the language from which the elements are borrowed, and direct contact between the speakers of two cultures, since only lexical material directly touches and functions. The ability to borrow is influenced by a large number of factors, such as the genetic proximity of languages, socio-political conditions, the way languages ​​are distributed, their similarity, the nature of contact, the attitude of linguistic communities to these languages, etc.

Both in domestic and foreign linguistics, there are a number of classifications of borrowings based on various criteria.

For example, borrowings are oral and bookish (O. S. Akhmanova, 1969; D. E. Rozental, 1976), direct and indirect (G. Paul, 1960; B. N. Golovin, 1973), lexical and morphematic (I. G. Dobrodomov, 1990), linguistic and cultural-historical (R. A. Budagov, 1965; L. Bloomfield, 1968), material borrowings and tracing papers (T. G. Linnik, 1989).

Following E. Haugen, we distinguish the following types of borrowings:

– borrowings proper, both the material form and the semantics of the source language are borrowed, however, phonomorphological and semantic changes are possible under the influence of the recipient language;

– semantic tracing papers, i.e. borrowing of semantics without material form or with partial morphemic substitution;

– hybrid formations, i.e. words, partly consisting of foreign language elements.

The importance of the problem of borrowing is determined both by linguistic parameters, which are aimed at revealing the mechanisms of adaptation, and by social ones, which make it possible to reveal the depth of cultural and historical contacts. The linguistic mechanism of the entry of borrowed units from different source languages ​​into the recipient language is basically the same, and borrowings can be studied from the point of view of the interference mechanism that led to them and from the point of view of phonological, grammatical and semantic adaptation in the borrowing language.

A. I. Smirnitsky notes that when borrowing “a word breaks with the system of the language in which it previously existed, is included in the system of another language and is formed according to the rules and means of this language. Understanding borrowing as the transfer of words from one language to another involves their adaptation in the structure of the recipient language and gradual adaptation to its linguistic norms. Hence, according to L. A. Ilyina, the priority of the formal development of borrowings as a criterion for their inclusion in the perceiving language, their division according to this criterion into “assimilated” and “non-assimilated”, the allocation of ordinary, but non-assimilated foreign words in the language.

Modern contact linguistics is dominated by three main approaches (or theories) to the problem of lexical borrowing, on which, Humanities. Philology 69 News of higher educational institutions. The Volga region, in particular, points out J. Aidukovich. These include: 1) the theory of the transfer of borrowings, according to which borrowing is considered as “transition, transfer, penetration of elements of one language into another language”;

2) the theory of structural modeling of borrowings by analogy with foreign language samples, according to which borrowing is explained as “the creation of its own elements of the language through creative imitation, approximate copying of foreign language samples; 3) a compromise theory, according to which "when copying the plan of expression"

“transfer, transition of foreign language meanings” is allowed.

Thus, the widespread traditional understanding of borrowing as a transition, transfer, penetration of elements of one language into another is opposed by its explanation as the creation of its own elements by the language's own means through creative imitation, approximate copying or structural modeling by analogy with foreign language samples.

On the basis of the "transfer" theory, the theory of activation or adaptation of the elements of the source language in the recipient language is also postulated, according to which in the speech of monolinguals the word transferred from one language to another undergoes adaptation at all language levels and the results of linguistic influence can be represented by a scale - from complete integration to a complete mismatch of linguistic elements.

Most scientists (L. P. Krysin, E. Haugen, B. N. Zabavnikov, V. M. Aristova) distinguish three main stages of adaptation of borrowings in the recipient language: penetration into speech, partial assimilation (borrowing), rooting in the language.

1. Penetration meets the following criteria:

- direct connection with the source language, manifested in the external design of the word, for example, the appearance of foreign inclusions in texts, the appearance of formal doublets, fluctuations at the grammatical and word-formation levels;

- semantic unambiguity as a consequence of the fact that in most cases the lexical unit at the stage of penetration denotes someone else's reality or conveys someone else's concept;

– use in certain contexts;

- the absence of derivative formations.

2. Borrowing is characterized by:

the internal connection of the word with the source language;

stabilization of the word form at the grammatical and derivational levels;

the beginning of the regular use of the word;

the beginning of word-formation activity.

3. Rooting is characterized by:

separation of words from the source language;

the complete semantic independence of the word and the formation of the lexico-semantic microsystem of the given word (phraseological units, figurative usage, etc.);

interaction with elements of the borrowing language, leading to differentiation of meanings in native words;

university proceedings. Volga region № 4 (36), 2015 Humanities. Philology by the wide use of the word;

wide word-formation activity, often leading to the formation of new lexemes.

It can be difficult to determine at what stage of adaptation this or that borrowing is. The process of adapting borrowings at different language levels proceeds unevenly; a relatively small number of borrowings is characterized by the same degree of mastery at all levels of the language system.

As a result, linguists are developing more specific classifications of the degrees of adaptation of borrowings. Following the traditionally distinguished criteria for adaptation of borrowings developed by Sh. Seshan, S. A. Belyaeva, V. M. Aristova, G. V. Pavlenko, the following order of the degree of adaptation is proposed: phonetic and graphic adaptation, grammatical, lexical-semantic adaptation, semantic independence words, its derivational activity, the emergence of new meanings in the recipient language, widespread use in speech, expansion of the semantic range of the word.

At the first stage, foreign inclusions, or exoticisms, are identified, which are occasional lexical units that penetrate the language, retain letter (spelling) combinations of the source language.

In texts with graphical implementation, they are displayed in quotation marks or in italics. There are only small changes in the sound envelope of borrowing. They are at the initial stage of adaptation, however, in the process of frequent use in speech, they can adapt in the recipient language and move to the stage of rooting in the language.

At the second stage of development, borrowings become more and more adapted to the system of the recipient language, which is associated with the desire to make them more understandable. Partially assimilated borrowings are subject to phonetic-graphic, morphological and semantic adaptation. In order to convey a foreign word through the sounds of the borrowing language, it is simplified by reducing sounds, omitting unstressed vowels and eliminating the dependence of the meaning of the word on the longitude of the vowel sound.

With grammatical adaptation, borrowings are correlated with certain lexical and grammatical categories of words. The borrowed word gradually loses the grammatical categories of the source language and is included in the morphological system of the borrowing language, acquiring the corresponding grammatical categories of the recipient language.

At the stage of rooting, the borrowed word begins to have signs of semantic independence and enters into a system of semantic links with other words of the recipient language. Not many words retain their former semantic characteristics, most often they are influenced by the borrowing language, which leads to the development of new meanings in them.

At the stage of rooting, foreign vocabulary in the borrowing language shows active word-formation activity, forms words with the same root, acquires new shades of meanings, etc.

B. N. Zabavnikov notes that borrowings begin to observe “a deviation in semantic development on a new basis. This may be a change in the volume of the meaning of a borrowed word in comparison with its prototype, most often a narrowing.

humanities. Philology 71 News of higher educational institutions. Volga Region It should be noted that the semantic adaptation of the word primarily indicates that the word was indeed assimilated into the recipient language. In this case, the borrowed word is included in the system of semantic links in the vocabulary of the recipient language, undergoes new grammatical transformations, undergoes semantic changes along with the original words, and can acquire a completely different meaning.

Borrowing can take place at all levels of the language structure. In some situations, in particular with indirect language contact, only lexical borrowing occurs, while the consequences for the receiving language may be insignificant; in others, in particular with direct language contact, there may be different type code switches. With intense contact between two or more language communities, both lexical and structural borrowing can occur, which can lead to changes and restructuring of the language or recipient languages; language contact may also contribute to language change. In some cases, the recipient language may undergo only minor changes in different linguistic tiers, in others it may undergo significant restructuring, as a result of which its variants or varieties may be formed, an example of which are the territorial variants of the Spanish language and the Hispano-Creole languages ​​common on the American continent.

As for the mechanism of interaction between contacting languages, it depends both on the nature of interethnic contacts and on the intrastructural properties of these languages ​​and, above all, on their structural similarity (difference) and mutual intelligibility (misunderstanding).

The generally accepted classification of borrowed lexical units is based on the classification according to the degree of mastering the word. Along with etymological classifications (according to the source of borrowing), “this kind of classifications involves not only solving the question of the source of the borrowing of a word (or group of words), but also raising the question of typological similarity and the limit of permeability of two systems (giving and receiving), on which the word depends. or some other form and degree of formal and semantic adaptation.

L. P. Krysin identifies the conditions necessary for the adaptation of a borrowed word in the system of a borrowing language, which at the structural level include its transmission by phonetic and graphic means of the borrowing language, correlation with grammatical classes and categories, phonetic and grammatical development, word-formation activity. At the level of semantic adaptation, the certainty of meaning is formed, there is a differentiation of meanings and their shades between the borrowed word and the original vocabulary existing in the language. Finally, one of the main signs of the adaptability of a word is its regular use in speech.

The classifications also reflect the aspect of the borrowing process that concerns the determination of the extreme points of this process, namely the time of penetration and the time of mastering the borrowed unit in the system of the borrowing language. Foreign material that does not fit into the parameters of the language system is subject to mandatory processing in it. So, according to the University proceedings. Volga region № 4 (36), 2015 Humanities. Philology to the second extreme point (state), as shown above, put forward a whole set of signs-indicators of the complete assimilation of the word.

The degree of assimilation of a foreign word is evidenced by the presence of differential features: the more there are, the higher the assimilation of borrowing in the recipient language. All borrowings are subdivided on the basis of compliance / non-compliance with established language norms, as a result of which the following types of adaptation of borrowed vocabulary are distinguished: graphic, phonetic, morphological, syntactic and semantic.

Since the structural difference between the languages ​​in contact is an objective reason for interlingual interference, to study it, as a rule, their systems are compared in synchronous and/or diachronic terms. It is believed that the structural factors influencing the interference are of a total nature and cover all levels of the language system (phonological, grammatical and lexical). In order to more fully and reliably describe the changes in the languages ​​in contact, the above levels are investigated in the paradigmatic, syntagmatic and transformational plans with the study of complete and partial divergences in linguistic structures.

The degree of adaptation of borrowing depends on the level of genetic relationship of the donor language and the recipient language, the typological similarity of the contacting languages, the scope, frequency and duration of its use, the intensity of the adaptive effect of the recipient language, as well as the correspondence / discrepancy between the phonetic, spelling and grammatical characteristics of words of foreign origin productive types of design of native words of the borrowing language. A foreign word is considered fully adapted if it was mastered not only at the formal level, but also acquired its own independent lexical meaning, i.e. began to express subject-conceptual relations, and also developed the ability to combine with other words.

Bibliography

1. P h e l i z o n, J. H. Vocabulaire de la linguistique / J. H. Phelizon. - Paris: Eds Roudel, 1976. - 280 p.

2. Zhluktenko, Yu. A. Linguistic aspects of bilingualism / Yu. A. Zhluktenko. - Kyiv: Vishcha school. Publishing house at Kyiv. un-te, 1974. - 174 p.

3. Dobrodomov, I. G. Borrowing / I. G. Dobrodomov // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / ed. ed. V. N. Yartseva. – M.: Sov. encyclopedia, 1990. - S. 158–159.

4. Krysin, L.P. Euphemisms in modern Russian speech / L.P. Krysin // Russian Studies. - Berlin, 1994. - No. 1–2. – P. 28–49.

5. Haugen, E. The process of borrowing / E. Haugen // New in linguistics. – M.:

Progress, 1972. - Issue. 6. - S. 344-382.

6. Smirnitzky, A. I. Lexicology of English language/ A. I. Smirnitsky. – M. : Moskovsky State University, 1998. - 260 p.

7. Il'ina, L. A. Lexical borrowing: the transition of foreign languages ​​or intralinguistic creation / L. A. Ilyina, O. V. Sycheva // Humanities in Siberia.

Series "Philology". - Novosibirsk, 1998. - No. 4. - P. 91–96.

8. Ai dukovich, J. O. Basic concepts of lexical contactology (based on Russianisms in Slavic languages) // Russian language: historical fates and humanities. Philology 73 News of higher educational institutions. Volga region temporality: theses of the II Intern. Congress of Russian Language Researchers. - M., 2004. - P. 445. - URL: http://www.ptt.rs/korisnici/j/o/joralbgd/OsnovniPojmovi.

htm (date of access: 02/01/2015).

9. Aristova, V. M. On the history of English words in Russian: Author. dis. … cand. philol. Sciences / Aristova V. M.; SamGU. - Samarkand, 1968. - 38 p.

10. Pavlenko, G. V. The problem of mastering foreign borrowings: linguistic and speech aspects (based on anglicisms of the late 20th century): author. dis....

cand. philol. Sciences / Pavlenko G.V.; Taganrog. state ped. in-t. - Taganrog, 1999. - 27 p.

11. Zabavnikov, B. N. Semantic development of French lexical borrowings in modern German / B. N. Zabavnikov // Philological Sciences. - M .: Higher School, 1977. - Issue. 4. – P. 71–79.

12. Birzhakova, E. E. Essays on the historical lexicology of the Russian language of the 18th century. Language contacts and borrowings / E. E. Birzhakova, L. A. Voinova, L. L. Kutina. - L .: Nauka, 1972. - 431 p.

13. Krysin, L.P. Foreign words in modern Russian / L.P. Krysin. - M. : Nauka, 1968. - 208 p.

References

1 Phelizon J. H. Vocabulaire de la linguistique. Paris: Eds Roudel, 1976, 280 p.

2. Zhluktenko Yu. A. Linguisticheskie aspekty dvuyazychiya. Kiev: Vishcha shk. Izd-vo pri Kiev. un-te, 1974, 174 p.

3. Dobrodomov I. G. Lingvisticheskiy entsiklopedicheskiy slovar". Moscow: Sov. entsiklopediya, 1990, pp. 158–159.

4. Krysin L.P. Rusistika. Berlin, 1994, no. 1–2, pp. 28–49.

5. Khaugen E. Novoe v lingvistike. Moscow: Progress, 1972, iss. 6, pp. 344–382.

6. Smirnitskiy A. I. Leksikologiya angliyskogo yazyka.

Moscow: Moscow State University, 1998, 260 p.

7. Il "ina L. A., Sycheva O. V. Humanitarnye nauki v Sibiri. Seriya "Filologiya" . Novosibirsk, 1998, no. 4, pp. 91–96.

8. Aydukovich Y. O. Russkiy yazyk: istoricheskie sud "by i sovremennost": tezisy II Mezhdunar. kongressa issledovateley russkogo yazyka.

Moscow, 2004, p. 445. Available at: http://www.ptt.rs/korisnici/j/o/joralbgd/Osnovni Pojmovi.htm (accessed 1 February 2015).

9. Aristova V. M. K istorii angliyskikh slov v russkom yazyke: avtoref. dis. cand. filol.

science. Samarkand, 1968, 38 p.

10. Pavlenko G. V. Problema osvoeniya inoyazychnykh zaimstvovaniy: yazykovoy i rechevoy aspekty (na materiale anglitsizmov kontsa XX v.): avtoref. dis. cand. filol. science. Taganrog, 1999, 27 p.

11. Zabavnikov B. N. Philologicheskie nauki. Moscow: Vysshaya shkola, 1977, iss. 4, pp. 71–79.

12. Birzhakova E. E., Voynova L. A., Kutina L. L. Ocherki po istoricheskoy leksikologii russkogo yazyka XVIII v. Yazykovye kontakty i zaimstvovaniya. Leningrad: Nauka, 1972, 431 p.

13. Krysin L. P. Inoyazychnye slova v sovremennom russkom yazyke. Moscow: Nauka, 1968, 208 p.

university proceedings. Volga region № 4 (36), 2015 Humanities. Philology Kudryashova Sofia Vladimirovna Kudriashova Sofia Vladimirovna PhD in Philology, Associate Professor, Candidate of philological sciences, associate Department of German and French professor, sub-department of German languages, Saratov State and French languages, Saratov State Law Academy Academy of Law (1 Volskaya street, Saratov , Russia) (Russia, Saratov, Volskaya st., 1) E-mail: [email protected] UDC 81 Kudryashova, S. V.

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In the process of borrowing, they usually distinguish from a range of problems:

factors (reasons) of borrowing;

borrowing mechanisms;

development of loans.

Reasons (factors) borrowings of words and phrases in different historical periods of the formation and development of the lexical-semantic system of the Russian language were different. There are non-linguistic and linguistic reasons.

To non-linguistic include various contacts of the Russian people with other peoples. The nature of contacts also determines the nature of borrowings. This process is most typical for early stages development of the Russian language. In the future, this is facilitated by the intrasocial development of society, the progress of science and technology, etc. One of the forms of realizing the influence of such contacts is the borrowing of a word along with the borrowing of an object, phenomenon, concept, quality, action, etc., and this determines the main function of foreign language elements - the naming of new objects, qualities, labor processes, as well as previously unfamiliar concepts, phenomena, etc. Therefore, ancient Turkic, Greek, Gothic, Scandinavian and other borrowings are, first of all, the names of objects of exchange, and in the future - and trade, everyday realities, etc.

To linguistic reasons borrowings include (1) the desire of native speakers to replenish, deepen and expand the understanding of the subject, to detail the concept (feature) by distinguishing shades, and also (2) the desire to stylistically differentiate, delimit words. So, among the original synonymous and antonymous lexemes, borrowed ones arise that have additional shades of meaning or are more suitable for a different area of ​​​​use. Compare: functional-semantic difference of Old Russian ports → trousers- initial "dress, clothes" and "canvas men's underwear"; pants from groan, found in monuments from the 15th century. with the original meaning "short underdress with stockings and shoes" and goll. Broek- pants, arrived at the beginning of the 18th century. with the meaning "sailor dress", "sailor pants"; It is curious to note that in Russian there was a word trousers - kind of cloth . The reverse process is also observed - clarification with the subsequent replacement of the borrowed word with a synonymous Russian one. So, the Turkic borrowing of the common Slavic period interpreter(see Tatar telmach, where tel - language) from the beginning of the 16th century. displaced by the Russian proper interpreter, which was facilitated by the secondary actualization of the semantics of the word translation in connection with the distribution already in the XVIII century. French tradition, which is sometimes erroneously considered the primary stem of the word translation, calling it tracing paper from French.

Linguistic reasons also include (3) a long-established tendency to replace a divided name with a one-word one. Wed modern: highway - instead of "highway" cruise - instead of "travel by steamboat or boat", motel - instead of "hotel for autotourists", etc. This process is also supported by the trend towards the creation of international terms, common names.

Borrowing mechanisms

There are the following borrowing mechanisms:

BORROWING

lexical borrowing

tracing

derivational

semantic

partial

At lexical borrowing(actual borrowing) the entire lexeme is transferred from another language (both its form and semantics): jumper, office, taxi etc.

At tracing paper lexeme transfer is carried out partially. As a result, two types of cripples arise:

word-building (actually lexical) and

semantic (lexico-semantic).

Derivational tracing paper a word is called, formed by means of a literal translation into Russian of each morpheme (prefix, root, suffixes, etc.), i.e., by exact copying of both the method of formation (morpheme model) and meaning. Such tracing papers from Latin or Greek are many terms, for example, linguistic ones: interjection(lat. Inter + jectio), adverb(lat. ad + verbium), spelling(gr. ō orthos + graphō ), etc., as well as other words: welfare(fr. bien + ê tre), biography(gr. bios + graphō ), superman(German ü ber + Mensch) and etc.

Semantic (or lexico-semantic) tracing papers words are called in which only the meaning is borrowed (and the form remains the same). For example, touch(fr. toucher) in the meaning of "cause sympathy"; nail(fr. clou) in the meaning of "basis, main thing" in combination highlight of the program; refined(fr. raffine) in the meaning of "refined, refined"; rule in the meaning of "sample, norm" (column kanō n- measure, yardstick, sample; primordial in common Slavic rule there was a meaning associated with the concept of a flat surface, straightness); hand (at hand, in hand) in the meaning of "power, domination" (developed under the influence of gr. λ pό tá s cheiras) and etc.

Word-building tracing occurs when words are borrowed from Greek, Latin, German, French, and sometimes Turkic languages. Lexico-semantic calques arise on the basis of words of different languages, but most often on the basis of French.

In addition to complete word-formation and semantic cripples, in the Russian language there are many so-called semi-crippled, i.e., words in which, along with exact copying of foreign parts, there are native Russians. Semicalcs include, for example, the words humanity(Russian suffix -awn), TV(the second part is common Slavic, formed from a verb with a proper Russian infinitive suffix -t), broadcast(the second part is actually Russian education based on the common Slavic verb to give) etc.

Development of borrowings

The development of borrowings in the Russian language is a difficult and lengthy process. This is not only the perception of words from other languages, but their creative development at all levels of the language system, formal and semantic transformation in accordance with the original, original features of the Russian language and a high degree of its development. Foreign words were subjected to various kinds of changes (phonetic, morphological, semantic), obeying the laws of the development of the Russian language, its functional and stylistic norms. Accordingly, it is customary to distinguish the following stages of mastering borrowed vocabulary: phonetic-graphic, grammatical and semantic.

On the phonetic-graphic stage, a foreign word adapts to the Russian phonetic and graphic system. Results at this stage are ambiguous. An important role in this case is played by the channel of borrowing: written or oral. If the lexeme is borrowed through the written channel, then the principle of its development at this stage is transliteration(transfer of letter composition). Often this leads to the fact that respect for "foreign" writing disfigures our writing (i.e., there is a violation of the principles and laws of Russian graphics: andYu ri, bucketYu t, rayo n. mayo R etc.).

When borrowing through the oral channel dominates transcription(transmission of sound composition) lexemes. In this case, fluctuations are possible: vowel sounds that do not coincide with Russian (or are not characteristic of them) are transmitted differently: a combination of vowels ee, ai or their longitude her - how ev, av, and (eucalyptus from gr. eukaluptos, automobile from it. Automobil, rally from English meeting etc.). Many consonants are Russified during the development of Japanese borrowings. For example, in the XX century. the word came into Russian vocabulary shimoza (shimose) - explosive. (Shimose also called a projectile or grenade stuffed with this substance.). The name of the type of struggle in self-defense without weapons has been modernized judo(or judo) - original title jujutsu (jap. jujutsu, descending from Chinese roots). The consonants in the word have changed banzai - cheers (jap. banzai – letters. ten thousand years) and also in the word Cio Cio San(jap. Cho-cho – butterfly, moth + dignity – madam, then Tyo-Tio-San, finally, the current form), etc.

The pronunciation in borrowed words of sounds that are absent in the Russian language at all or are not subject to phonetic processes, speaks of incomplete phonetic mastery of the word: no reduction in word boa, soft [and'] in the word jury etc.

On the grammatical stage, a foreign word is included in the Russian system of parts of speech. Then the following changes are observed:

a) a foreign lexeme acquires Russian affixes (suffixes and endings): German. repetieren → rehearse, fr. patétique → pathetic, German rocket → rocket;

b) suffixes not characteristic of the Russian language are replaced by more common ones (sometimes also foreign-language ones); cf. gr. harmonikOS→ harmonic, amorphOS→ amorphous, lat. verticalIS→ vertical etc.;

c) the gender of borrowed nouns changes (cf. Greek. politics, problema - cf., politics, issue- and. R.). In the absence of an ending, it becomes necessary to assign a gender category.

d) the category of number changes: for example, words borrowed in the plural form are perceived as singular forms, and vice versa: English. cakes, pl. h. → cupcake, units h., Spanish silos, pl. → silage, units hours;

e) the part of the word can change; credo ← lat. Credo "I believe" piano ← fr. royal "royal";

e) the phrase can turn into one word: lat. res publica"common cause" → republic, fr. eau de Cologne"cologne water" → cologne.

But not all borrowed words undergo complete grammatical restructuring, many foreign nouns and adjectives do not decline in Russian: bolero, cafe, kangaroo, khaki, mini etc.

Semantic development can take place without changes ( form, formula ← lat. form, formula) and with changes in the original (original) meanings of words: cf .: German. derma1er- "painter" and Russian. painter- "a worker for painting buildings, interiors"; fr. hazard - "case" and Russian. excitement – "passion, passion, ardor"; Turkic tavar- "cattle, domestic animal" (as an object of exchange) - Russian. product- "everything that is the subject of trade."

Often, semantic changes are closely related to structural and grammatical features. In this case, there is a change in the nature of the relationship between words related in origin. For example, between words canned food, conservative and conservatory in Russian there is no connection; especially since they came in different ways from different languages: canned food from french, conservative from Latin ( conservative), a conservatory from Italian. However, all three words go back to the Latin verb preserveabout – « I preserve, protect" (from lat. conservare- "save"). In the process of borrowing, intermediate single-root formations, characteristic of these words in the languages ​​from which they came, were lost in Russian. Only one member of the series turned out to be borrowed, and the semantic connection between related formations that existed in the native language broke off, i.e., the so-called “de-etymologization” took place. The semantic and word-formation connection between words related by origin was also violated. novel, romance and romance(fr.), aquarium and watercolor(lat.), ambition and fee(lat.), gymnastics and gymnasium(gr.), minesweeper and trawler(English), chancellor and office(German) and others.

The change in the meaning of borrowed words is also due to the fact that not all the meanings of the word that are characteristic of it in the native language take root in the Russian language. For example, there was a narrowing of such a polysemantic word in English as business; compare: business- 1) "occupation, business, profession"; 2) “trade enterprise; firm"; 3) "good deal". In Russian, the third meaning has been established. Conversely, the meaning can expand: in fr. language orangerie - "greenhouse for growing oranges", and in Russian greenhouse- "Greenhouse in general."

Lexical units that are not fully mastered semantically are called exoticisms (gr. exō tickos – alien, alien). Their incomplete assimilation is associated with the specificity of the denotation - usually these are words with a clearly fixed belonging to a particular country, republic, region and nationality. They, as a rule, are at first little known to native speakers of the language in which they are used. These include, for example,

names of state institutions: Bundestag(German), Majlis(tour.), Riksdag(Swiss), Khural(mong.), etc.;

positions, titles, occupation, position of people: bonza, geisha, samurai, mikado(jap.), clerk, constable(English), priest(Polish), concierge(s), curé(fr.), lama(Tib.), Janissaries(tur.) and others;

villages, dwellings aul (Caucasian), wigwam(Indian), village(middle), saklya(Caucasus), yurt(Southern Sib.), yaranga(chuk.) and under .;

types of clothes: beshmet(Caucasus), kimono(jap.), sari(Indian.), veil(az.), kukhlyanka(chuk.) and others;

meals, drinks: beshbarmak, plov, chal(middle az.); matsoni, lavash, suluguni(Caucasus), etc.;

banknotes, coins: dollar(amer.), gulden(Dutch), yen ( Japanese), pfennig, brand(German), lira (t.), franc(French, Belgian), yuan(Chinese) and others.

Close to exotic are foreign words that are not fully mastered (or not mastered at all) by the borrowing language due to the peculiarities of phonetic and grammatical properties. They, as a rule, are used in forms that do not exist in the Russian language. These words are called barbarism (gr. barbarismos- foreign-speaking, foreign). They are not characterized by a clear national-territorial consolidation. They can either be transmitted by means of the borrowing language, or used without translation. Moreover, their original linguistic fixation is erased, that is, it is easily restored etymologically, but is not a distinctive feature of only the lexical system in which they were originally used, for example dandy, madam, signor, sir, hobby and etc.

Both those and other borrowings, in addition to the function of naming, perform special stylistic functions. Exoticisms most often give a "local flavor" to the description or are a means of speech characterization: In the Bigvillage, under the mountain, nearsakley smoky and simple, Circassians sometimes sit late ...(L.).

Barbarisms are used to convey lexical units and expressions that are not literally translated into Russian or as a means of creating a foreign language characteristic. Often they give a humorous, ironic or satirical tone to the text.

Passion for exoticism and barbarism is often observed in the language of fiction and in colloquial speech. To avoid such shortcomings, the active development of the lexical and semantic possibilities of the native language, respect for it, as well as the development and continuous improvement of the language sense helps.

Classification of borrowed vocabulary

The classification of borrowed vocabulary is carried out on two grounds:

by source of borrowing;

by borrowing time (from the point of view of the epoch and historical conditions)

				Borrowed vocabulary
from specific languages														internationalisms
from non-Slavic languages							from Slavic languages
	from Old Church Slavonic											from other Slavic languages

The first classification is as follows:

Borrowings from specific languages ​​are divided into two types:

1) from the Slavic languages ​​(borrowings from the Old Slavonic language, as well as from other Slavic languages: Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish, Bulgarian, Czech, etc.);

2) from non-Slavic languages: borrowings from Greek, Latin, as well as Turkic, Iranian, Scandinavian, Western European (Romance, German, etc.); in addition, numerous borrowings from the languages ​​of the peoples of all the republics of the former Soviet Union.

Non-Slavic borrowings often serve as the basis for the formation of the so-called international vocabulary (having no attachment to a particular language), a variety of which are all sorts of international terms. This is perhaps one of the main functions of foreign words. The rapid development of science, technology, socio-economic changes require new names. And in this case, a single or very similar and quite understandable system of nomination for speakers of different languages ​​helps to save speech resources.

By the time of appearance in the Russian language, borrowings are also heterogeneous. Some of them are early: they were carried out during the period of either common Slavic linguistic unity, or East Slavic, that is, the Old Russian language, others are later (they already replenished the actual Russian vocabulary).

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..3

1. The concept of a borrowed word………………………………………………….5

2. Ways and reasons for borrowing………………………………………………….8

3. Groups of borrowed vocabulary depending on the degree of assimilation in the Russian language…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

4. Signs of foreign language vocabulary………………………………………………….12

5. Mastering foreign lexemes in the Russian language……………………………..13

13

14

5.3 Morphological development…………………………………………...…...14

5.4 Lexical development………………………………………………….…...15

6. New borrowings in Russian……………………………………...17

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….19

References…………………………………………………………………20

Introduction

Language is, undoubtedly, the most important means of human interpersonal communication. Any language is inextricably linked with thinking, which defines it from the position of a universal mechanism that controls human behavior. Language belongs to those social phenomena that operate throughout the existence of human society.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign language sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its development. historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others - relatively recently.

In Russia, global changes in the field of linguistic culture at the turn of the century and at the beginning of the 21st century occur under the influence of socio-economic, cultural and political problems. Powerful negative impact influence the culture of the media, whose soulless, low-quality products lie on the basis of the general illiteracy of the population in matters of their native language and contribute to a further deterioration of the situation.

It is well known that every historical epoch has its own ideal of human dignity and beauty of speech. After all, it is generally recognized that without a language there is no nation.

The modern ideal of human dignity and the beauty of speech is formed under the vigilant influence of the media, jargon, concessions to colloquial usage, and this phenomenon fundamentally distinguishes the age of information technology from the past, when extralinguistic factors could not have such a powerful influence on the state of the language.

Clarity and intelligibility of speech depend on the correct use of foreign words in it. In recent years, the problem of using foreign words has become especially acute for Russian citizens. This is due to the fact that along with imported items, scientific, political and economic technologies, a stream of borrowings poured into the country, which are often not clear to most people. In this regard, scientists, writers, publicists and simply thinking people express concern and even sound the alarm about the destructiveness of such a massive process of expansion of borrowed words into the Russian language.

That is why, in modern linguistics, research in the field of foreign vocabulary remains relevant. Only with a superficial look at the phenomena of borrowing does the problem seem simple and solved. Meanwhile, many questions have not yet received exhaustive answers. Sociological and linguistic issues that link borrowing with common problem language interactions, the semantic aspect of borrowings, linguistic and regional components of foreign words in the borrowing language.

The status of borrowed elements, processes and results of word formation on the basis of foreign language formants needs to be studied in more detail.

1. The concept of a borrowed word

In linguistics, a borrowed word is understood to mean any word that came into the Russian language from outside, even if it does not differ in any way from native Russian words in its morphemes (this phenomenon can be observed when a word is taken from any closely related Slavic language, for example: wisdom - from the Old Slavonic language, liberty - from the Polish language).

The process of borrowing words is a normal phenomenon, and in certain historical periods even inevitable. In principle, the development of foreign vocabulary enriches vocabulary receiving language. Let us recall the enormous role played by the Greek and Latin languages ​​in Europe, the Old Church Slavonic language in the Slavic world, and Arabic in the Muslim East. Borrowing words from other languages ​​has happened, is happening and will happen at all times and in the languages ​​of all peoples. By counting borrowed words, scientists were able to obtain interesting data. So, in the German language, borrowings number in the tens of thousands, and in the vocabulary of the English language they make up more than half. What is the situation with borrowed words (in quantitative terms) in the Russian language?

Foreign words in the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language, although they represent a rather numerous layer of vocabulary, nevertheless do not exceed 10% of its entire vocabulary. In the general lexical system of the language, only a small part of them acts as an interstyle common vocabulary; the vast majority of them have a stylistically fixed use in bookish speech and are therefore characterized by a narrow scope of application (acting as terms, professionalisms, barbarisms, specific bookish words, etc.).

Undoubtedly, enriched by borrowings, the Russian vocabulary remains basically Indo-European-Slavic-Russian. This is one of the important reasons for the preservation of the originality and unique national character of the Russian language.

It turns out that it is far from always easy to establish the difference between the concepts of one's own (original) and borrowed in the language. Firstly, the etymology of some very old words has not been clarified, for example, it is not clear whether the word regiment is originally Russian or borrowed from the Germans (cf .: German Volk - people). Secondly, the question often arises whether a word should be considered Russian or borrowed, in which all morphemes are foreign, but borrowed from different languages, or there are both foreign and Russian morphemes. So, in the word lifter, the root is - English origin(English lift), the suffix -ёr- - French (-eur-), which is part of such words of French origin as a miner, pianist, director, etc. The word seems to be clearly not its own. But the fact is that the word elevator operator is not in English, nor in

French. Most likely, this word arose in Russian from an English root and a French suffix. There are also words in Russian vocabulary containing a borrowed root and a Russian suffix: marin-ovat, montazh-nick or Russian root and a foreign suffix: svyaz-ist, uhazh-er. To what words do we attribute the named ones - to primordially Russian or borrowed ones? Most scientists consider them to belong to the original Russian vocabulary. "Of course, it is strange to hear that a conductor, a radio play, a film program are Russian words. But if it is strange to hear, then it would be wrong to consider them borrowed from a scientific point of view" [Kalinin A.V. Vocabulary of the Russian language. - M., 1978, p.64]. The fact is that these words, as lexemes with a certain meaning, arose precisely in the Russian language according to a productive word-formation model using a foreign language element with a regular derivational meaning characteristic of Russian word formation. Consider examples of such models and the implementation of specific meanings of lexemes in texts. Thus, adjectives with the suffix -ichesk- have a general derivational meaning "referring to or peculiar to what is called the motivating word." From a semantic point of view, these adjectives are motivated by borrowed common nouns: historical from gr. history, aristocratic from c. aristocracy, satirical from lat. satire, romance from fr. novel, geographical from c. geography, pedantic from fr. pedant.

Verbs with the suffixes -i- and -ova- mean "action relating to what is called a borrowed motivating noun": to criticize from gr. criticism, address from fr. address, antimony from pers. antimony.

Speaking of borrowed words, one cannot fail to mention the so-called calques. Tracing paper (French calque) is a word or expression created from native language elements, but modeled after foreign words and expressions. So, the Russian verb “to look” arose as a tracing paper of the German word aussehen: the prefix aus- was translated as you-, -sehen as -to look. The words hydrogen and oxygen are tracings of the Latin words hydrogenium and oxygenium. There is a linguistic term to trace, i.e. translate piecemeal. The word "peninsula" is calque from the German "Halbinsel", the word "diary" from the French "journal", the word "skyscraper" - from the English "skyscraper".

Such materially primordial words that arose as a result of the translation of foreign words according to the morphemes that make up these words, as a result of the assimilation of the word-formation structure of foreign words, are called word-formative. They, as a rule, are products of book creativity, as they appeared during translations as neoplasms of translators. Only later did some of them become the property of oral literary speech. Words from Greek, Latin, French and German languages ​​act as word-forming samples of the corresponding cripples.

In addition to complete cripples, in the vocabulary of the Russian language there are semi-calques - words consisting partly of Russian material, and partly of the material of a foreign word, which, according to the word-formation structure, exactly corresponds to similar words of the source language from which the borrowing comes. For example, in the 40s of the XIX century. Thanks to V. G. Belinsky, the word humanity entered the Russian literary language. It arose by borrowing the root part of the German word "Humanitat" as the basis of the adjective humane- and translating the German suffix -itat, which forms abstract names, with the corresponding Russian suffix -ost.

In addition to word-formation, there are also phraseological tracings, for example: “vicious circle” traces the Latin “circulus vitiosus”, “for and against” - the Latin “pro et contra”, etc.

Semantic (semantic) tracing papers are also distinguished. With semantic tracing, the word acquires a new meaning, which is transferred from the corresponding foreign word, for example, in Russian the word picture has existed for a long time in different meanings: a work of painting, a spectacle, part of a play or an opera. Relatively recently, this word has acquired another meaning - a movie. This new meaning is a tracing paper of the English word picture. In English, picture is a picture, a portrait, and a movie.

2. Ways and reasons for borrowing

Borrowing from language to language can go in two ways: oral and written, through books. In written borrowing, the word changes relatively little. When spoken, the appearance of the word often changes more strongly: it. "Kringel" - "pretzel", Italian. "tartuvolo" - "potato".

Borrowings can be direct, from language to language, and indirect, through intermediary languages ​​(painter, fair - from German through Polish; lilac - from Latin through German).

The main reasons for borrowing, according to the researchers of this problem, are the following: historical contacts of peoples; the need to nominate new objects and concepts; innovation of the nation in any particular field of activity; language snobbery, fashion; economy of language means; the authority of the source language; a historically determined increase in certain social strata accepting a new word. All these are extralinguistic reasons.

Intralinguistic reasons include:

1) the absence in the native language of an equivalent word for a new subject or concept: PLAYER, HAPING, IMPEACHMENT, etc. In my opinion, this reason is the main reason for borrowing;

2) the tendency to use one borrowed word instead of a descriptive phrase, for example: a hotel for autotourists - MOTEL, a short press conference for journalists - BRIEFING, etc.;

3) the need for detailing the corresponding meaning, the designation with the help of a foreign word of some special type of objects or concepts that until then were called one Russian (or borrowed) word. For example, to designate a servant in a hotel in Russian, the french word porter, to designate a special kind of jam (in the form of a thick homogeneous mass) - English jam. The need for specialization of objects and concepts leads to the borrowing of many scientific and technical terms: for example, relevant along with Russian essential, local along with Russian local, transformer along with Russian converter, etc .;

4) the tendency to replenish expressive means, leading to the emergence of foreign stylistic synonyms: service - SERVICE, restriction - LIMIT;

5) if borrowed words are strengthened in the language, which form a series united by a common meaning and morphological structure, then the borrowing of a new foreign word similar to the words of this series is greatly facilitated. So, in the nineteenth century. the Russian language borrowed from English the words gentleman, policeman; at the end of the nineteenth - beginning of the twentieth century. an athlete, a record holder, a yachtsman were added to them. A number of words were formed that had the meaning of a person and a common element - men. New borrowings began to be added to this, so far small, series, which today already constitute a fairly significant group of nouns: businessman, congressman, crossman.

The sources of borrowing are different. They are determined by the specific historical destinies of the people. The Russian language includes words from a variety of languages: classical (Greek and Latin), Western European, Turkic, Scandinavian, related Slavic, etc.

3. Groups of borrowed vocabulary depending on the degree of assimilation in Russian

Depending on the degree of assimilation of borrowed vocabulary by the Russian language, it can be divided into several groups that differ significantly in stylistic terms.

I. Borrowed vocabulary goes back to foreign sources, which has an unlimited scope of use in modern Russian. According to the degree of assimilation by the language, these borrowings are divided into three groups.

1. Words that have lost any signs of non-Russian origin: picture, bed, chair, notebook, school.

2. Words that retain some external features of a foreign language origin: consonances not characteristic of the Russian language (veil, jury, jazz); non-Russian suffixes (technical school, student, director); non-Russian prefixes (broadcast, antibiotics); some of these words are not inflected (cinema, coat, coffee).

3. Common words from the field of science, politics, culture, art, known not only in Russian, but also in other European languages. Such words are called Europeanisms, or internationalisms: telegraph, telephone. A sign of the times is their stylistic neutralization. The borrowed words of the considered groups do not have Russian synonyms and belong to interstyle, emotionally-expressive neutral vocabulary. They are used in speech without any restrictions.

II. Borrowed vocabulary of limited use occupies a special place.

1. Bookish words that have not received general distribution: immoral, apologist, shock, which, as a rule, have Russian or Old Slavonic synonyms (cf. shock - shock, stun, blind, stun, stun, stun); A significant part of the borrowed book vocabulary is made up of terms that for the most part do not have Russian synonyms, which makes them indispensable in the scientific style: jargon, dialect, phoneme, morpheme, metric, rhyme. Russian synonyms usually have a weaker shade of scientificity, officiality, therefore, in book styles, foreign terms are often preferred. At the same time, stylists, not without reason, note that the scientific style is overloaded with borrowed words.

2. Borrowed words that penetrated into the Russian language under the influence of salon-noble jargon (amorous - "love", rendezvous - "date", pleisir - "pleasure"). The words of this group have become significantly archaic, they always have Russian synonyms, which are most often used in speech.

3. Exoticisms - borrowed words that characterize the specific national characteristics of life different peoples and are used in describing non-Russian reality. So, when depicting the life and way of life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the words AUL, SAKLYA, DZHIGIT, ARBA are used; Italian flavor is given to the speech by the words GONDOLA. TARANTELLA, Spanish - MANTILLA, CASTANETS, HIDALGO. Distinctive feature exoticisms is that they do not have Russian synonyms, so the appeal to them when describing the life of other peoples is dictated by necessity.

4. Barbarisms, i.e. foreign words transferred to Russian soil, the use of which is of an individual nature. It cannot be said about barbarisms that they are part of the Russian vocabulary. Unlike all lexical borrowings, barbarisms are not recorded in dictionaries of foreign words, and even more so in dictionaries of the Russian language. They enter speech as occasional means, for example, in V.V. Mayakovsky: A Negro approaches a plump carcass: "Ai bag er sorry, Mr. Bragg! Why should black Negro make sugar, white and white?" - barbarism, meaning "I beg your pardon", is conveyed by means of the Russian alphabet. Barbarisms differ from other foreign borrowings in that they have a "foreign" appearance, which sharply distinguishes them from the background of Russian vocabulary; unlike exoticisms, most barbarisms denote concepts that have names in the Russian language; unlike foreign inclusions, barbarisms are occasional in nature, they are devoid of the stylistic coloring of bookishness, scientific content, and remain outside the Russian dictionary.

5. Foreign inclusions in Russian vocabulary (allegro, ok, merci), which often retain non-Russian spelling (happy end (English) - happy ending, pater familias (lat.) - father of the family, dum spiro spero (lat.) - while I'm breathing, I hope) Foreign inclusions usually have lexical equivalents in the composition of Russian vocabulary, but stylistically they differ from them and are fixed in one or another sphere of communication as special names or as an expressive means that gives speech a special expression. feature distribution is not only in Russian, but also in other European languages.

4. Signs of foreign vocabulary

Despite the fact that a foreign word is transmitted by means of a borrowing language and acquires an independent meaning, its appearance often retains "foreignness" - phonetic, morphological features that are not characteristic of the Russian language.

There are such features of the sound appearance of words that do not belong to any separate group (German, English, Turkic, etc.), but generally characterize the word as foreign (or borrowed).

Here are some "interethnic" signs of borrowed words:

1. The initial "a" almost always indicates the non-Russian origin of the word: lampshade, diamond, questionnaire, questionnaire, aster, etc. Originally Russian words with the initial a are rare. These are some auxiliary words, interjections (and words formed from interjections): a, ah, aha, ah, gasp, come around and a few others.

2. The presence of the letter f in the word is a bright foreign language feature. With the exception of a few interjectional and onomatopoeic words (fu, uf, snort), words with the letter f are borrowed: February, cafe, fact, graphics, lantern, form, sofa, kefir, wardrobe, rhyme, trick, decanter, film, etc.

3. The combination at the junction of the base and the ending (but not at the root) ke, ge, heh (rocket, cedar, coat of arms, hero, scheme, trachea).

4. Gaping (neighborhood of two or more vowels) in the roots of words: poet, duel, cocoa, out, diet, baul, guard, halo, theater, etc. At the junction of morphemes (for example, prefixes and roots), such combinations are also possible in Russian by origin words: therefore, science, ignoramus, gasp, gasp, teach, etc.

5. Some combinations of consonants: anecdote, exam, backpack, zigzag, warehouse, etc.

6. The letter e is found almost exclusively in borrowed words: era, era, floor, evolution, element, echo, peer, ethics, aloe, canoe, etc. In non-borrowed words, e is rarely found - in words of interjective and pronominal nature: e, eh , this, such, therefore, etc.

7. Combinations of kyu, pyu, byu, vu, kyu, mu, etc.: mash, banknote, bureau, bureaucrat, bust, debut, etc.

8. Double consonants at the root of the word: abbot, colleague, corrosion, tunnel, sum, cash, diffusion, intermezzo.

9. Inflexibility of nouns: coffee, jury, depot, hummingbird, kangaroo.

10. Morphological inexpressibility of the number and gender of nouns: coat, coffee.

In addition to "international" signs, there are also signs that not only help to determine whether a particular word is borrowed, but also to determine from which language it was borrowed.

5. Mastering foreign lexemes in Russian

The process of mastering foreign language vocabulary is a very complex interaction of phonetic, grammatical, semantic systems of two or more, sometimes different, languages. Due to the fact that phonetic, grammatical and other phenomena in the systems of different languages ​​do not coincide, when they enter the Russian language, foreign words are processed, adapting to its norms and laws: borrowed words are subjected to graphic, phonetic, morphological and semantic development.

Sounds that are alien to the Russian language, when borrowed, are replaced by others that are available in the phonetic system of the Russian language, or disappear, the stress may change.

5.1 Semantic development

When borrowing, there are often changes in the semantics of words. The meaning of borrowed words can be narrowed, i.e. the borrowing language does not accept all the meanings available in the source language, or expand (in a semantic sense). We observe the process of narrowing the meanings, for example, in the words: lat. globus - "ball", Russian. globe - "model of the globe"; Turkic balyk - "fish", Russian. balyk - "spinal part of red fish"; English boots - "boots, boots", Russian. boots - "a kind of sports shoes", etc.

The meanings of such, for example, borrowed words as ital. caminata - "a room with a fireplace", Russian. room - "any room for housing." The semantics of a word can also change to a greater extent: Gr. diploma - "sheet folded in half", Russian. diploma - "document", Italian. pedante - "teacher, teacher", Russian. pedant - "one who is unnecessarily strict in fulfilling petty requirements, a literalist."

A special kind of rethinking of foreign words is the so-called folk, or false etymology - the desire to look for an internal form in words as a rational explanation of the meaning of words without taking into account the real facts of their origin. The desire to comprehend an unfamiliar word, fill it with a certain content, associate it with close, understandable Russian words leads to a change in the sound of a borrowed lexeme: instead of a boulevard, it sounds gulvar (a place for walking), instead of a polyclinic (Greek polis - "city", "city clinic") - a semi-clinic, instead of a marauder - miroder, instead of speculators - speculators, etc. Writers sometimes use folk etymology. So, K. Fedin in the novel "First Joys" in the speech of a sick bell-ringer beats the word "overtime" - inflammation of the peritoneum: "Students tell me that you have a big overtime. Indeed, I was very tired then.

5.2 Graphic development

The graphic development of a borrowed word is the transfer of it in writing by means of the Russian alphabet, in Russian letters: German. Jager - Russian huntsman, Polish frant - Russian dandy etc. Most foreign words, becoming the property of the Russian language, immediately acquire a Russian graphic appearance. This is especially true for the borrowing that is taking place at the present time. In some cases, however, the graphic assimilation of someone else's word did not occur immediately: for some time the word was transmitted in non-Russian letters, retaining a foreign appearance in writing. Pushkin wrote to his wife on April 17, 1834: I am having lunch at home today, having ordered botvinia and beafsteaks to Stepan. However, in the "History of the village of Goryukhin", written in 1830, the same English word transmitted in Russian letters. Obviously, in the first half of the nineteenth century. the word beefsteak had not yet been graphically established in the language and could be written both in Russian and in English. In the Russian encyclopedic dictionary, the word steak was first noted in 1834.

In the 20-30s of the 19th century, apparently, the word brochure was included in Russian written speech: Have you read his last brochure about Greece? - A.S. Pushkin wrote in his letter dated 14.X.1823 to Vyazemsky. The Encyclopedic Dictionary of 1836 gives this word already in Russian spelling. The words bulletin and portfolio were recorded by Russian dictionaries at the very beginning of the 20th century, but, apparently, the Russian form of these words was not yet very familiar. In the letters of A.S. Pushkin in the 30s we read:: I look forward to your bulletin: Try to dishevel his portefeuille, full of European treasures. Pushkin and Lermontov did not dare to write the words briefcase and picnic in Russian. In French, he wrote the word atelier Leskov.

5.3 Morphological development

Borrowed words, being part of the Russian language, obey its grammatical norms. Foreign suffixes that are not characteristic of the Russian language are discarded or replaced by Russian ones (Greek paradoxos - paradox, paidagogos - teacher, lat. oraculum - oracle.

Foreign suffixes and endings, alien to the Russian language, in some cases cease to be recognized as suffixes and endings and act as part of the base: lat. gradus, notarius, aquarium, colloquium - Russian. degree, notary, aquarium, colloquium.

Some French and German words acquire Russian inflections, which are indicators of grammatical gender: feminine nouns: German. die Bucht - bay, die Rakete - rocket.

When borrowing, in accordance with the ending in the word, the gender category changes. So, the Latin words in - it, which are neuter words in the source language, in Russian moved into the category of masculine nouns into a solid consonant without inflection: consilium, plenum, forum - consultation, plenum, forum. Greek words on - a (neuter) became feminine words: politika, thema, shema, axioma, problema - politics, theme, scheme, axiom, problem.

Many words that came from German and French changed the gender category: fr. masculine nouns Le role, le voile, le vase, le casque in Russian. feminine: veil, vase, helmet; German feminine nouns die Klasse, die Losung, die Tomate in Russian masculine: class, slogan, tomato; German neuter words das Halstuch, das Fartuch, das Hospital in Russian. masculine: tie, apron, hospital, etc.

It should be noted that the development process does not cover all words. Some borrowings retain their inherent phonetic and morphological features for a long time. So, in a number of words, the solid pronunciation of consonants before e is preserved: atelier, polonaise, cocktail, mayonnaise, thermos, there is no akanye: radio, cocoa, oasis, Voltaire, polonaise, some nouns and adjectives borrowed by the Russian language do not change: jury, cinema, coat , coffee, mini, pleated, khaki, etc.

5.4 Lexical development

By lexical acquisition, we mean the acquisition of a word as a unit of vocabulary. A word can be considered lexically mastered when it names a thing, a phenomenon characteristic of our Russian reality, when nothing remains in its meaning that would indicate its foreign language origin. The word coat, for example, is borrowed from the French language, but the object itself, the name of which this word serves, has firmly entered our everyday life and is not recognized, of course, as French clothing. Sport is a word of English origin, but this phenomenon is characteristic of Russian reality, Russian life to the same extent as English. This means that the words coat and sport are lexically mastered.

Most of the borrowed words in the Russian language are lexically mastered. Words of English origin such as jacket, emergency work, harvester, cupcake, ring, tennis, volleyball, rail do not remind of anything foreign. There is nothing specifically German in the meanings of the words tie, apron, plank, chisel, planer, curl, sample. Such lexemes of French origin as season, ballet, dressing table, baggage, invalid, cutlet are fully mastered.

Along with lexically mastered borrowed words, there are a number of exoticisms in our language. These are words that, although they are used in the Russian language, have something non-Russian in their meaning, reminiscent of their foreign language origin. For example: Seim, Majlis, piala, lavash, khural, santim, kure, aul, kishlak, frau, jock, zurna, hopak.

Exoticisms are interchangeable and irreplaceable. The interchangeable ones include such words that can be translated into Russian without much damage to the meaning: mister - gentleman, frau - madam, concierge - gatekeeper, etc. The use of such exoticisms is caused only by the need to convey local color. Another thing is "irreplaceable" exoticisms; untranslatable. It is impossible to translate the word franc as a ruble, to replace lavash in the text with bread or flat cake, to call khashi just a soup. Here are more examples of untranslatable exoticisms: sari, lavonikha, chonguri, tom-tom, turban, yen, dollar.

Barbarisms must be distinguished from exotic words. Barbarisms are truly foreign words interspersed in the Russian text. Sometimes (when transmitted in Russian letters) barbarisms can even be temporarily mastered grammatically, which is manifested, for example, in the declension of nouns, and yet these are non-Russian words. Barbarisms usually play a certain stylistic role in literary texts, contributing to the creation of local flavor (sometimes with a touch of joke, satire).

6. New borrowings in Russian

Development of technology, wide international communication, close business and cultural contacts modern world cannot but lead and indeed lead to a stormy intrusion of new borrowed words into our language.

Foreign words have appeared in our language that were not there before: cruise, motel, camping, service, hobby, etc. Are these words necessary?

This question is quite natural and not so simple, since it is connected with the general problem of using borrowed words in modern Russian speech.

There are practically no languages ​​in the world whose vocabulary would be limited only to native words. Borrowings are a natural result of language contacts, relationships between different peoples and states. There are borrowed words in every language, and no one doubts their necessity as a whole. However, now we are talking about new borrowings. Indeed, literally in our days such words as liner, comics, laser, nylon, hobby, global, detective, escalation, beatles and many others have appeared and become widespread. Should we welcome any borrowing just because there is a common process of interaction between languages? Of course not.

There are a number of requirements for borrowed words in the literary language. Borrowing must be, firstly, necessary - that is, one that cannot be dispensed with. This is usually associated with borrowing the names of things, objects or concepts that exist in another language from other peoples. Any borrowing without need, necessity leads to the abuse of foreign words, to unacceptable clogging of the native language.

Secondly, a foreign word must be used correctly and exactly in the meaning it has in the source language (this is especially true for new borrowings).

And, finally, a foreign word should be understandable by the speaker and writer. However, this “understanding” is relative and historically conditioned. What has long been understood and known to a specialist may not be clear to a wide range of speakers; what is incomprehensible today can become and becomes clear and familiar to everyone over time.

It has long been noticed that the language borrows not only the designations of new things, concepts, for example, combine, motor scooter, apartheid, but also such words, the meaning of which seems to coincide with the meaning of primordially Russian words. Service, hobbies and the like are just that. Why are they used in our speech?

The fact is that these words are not preserved in use as doublets, which completely repeat the meaning of the corresponding Russian words. They differ in some shades of sound, stylistic coloring etc.

So, service is not generally "service", but "servicing the household needs of the population"; the word hobby includes in its meaning the semantic features of several names at once: it is a hobby, a passion, a hobby, and a favorite pastime. But none of these words separately fully expresses the entire volume of meaning inherent in a foreign noun.

Of course, it is still too early to say that these words have become quite familiar in the Russian language. Pay attention to their morphological features and pronunciation: hobby is not inclined, but we pronounce the second word service, and not, as is customary in Russian words, service. However, as experience shows, this does not prevent foreign words from occupying strong positions in the language. The words cruise, motel and camping appeared in Russian relatively recently. It is still impossible to call them fully mastered. Unlike such words as camp, tourist or flight, they may not be understood in all cases and not for everyone. Therefore, they should be used with the obligatory consideration of their lack of development.

It can be assumed that the development of such words is a matter of time. Indeed, along with the word cruise - "sea voyage" we also have the phrase cruise voyage, that is, "travel of tourists along a certain sea route." As for the words motel and camping, their appearance is dictated by the wide development of car tourism these days. A motel is a hotel for car tourists (as well as a technical station serving them). Camping - a camp for autotourists, a place for their rest. Whether these words will take root in the Russian language or be replaced by descriptive phrases, it is still difficult to say.

Conclusion.

There are two aspects to the problem of foreign borrowings. The first of them is connected with the allocation of the object itself - the circle of borrowings, assessed as unnecessary or controversial in a given period. The second aspect is the functional and scientific-linguistic approach to the facts of borrowings.

The circle of borrowings in each historical era is determined by socio-political, cultural and other conditions and turns out to be transient in the evolution of the literary language: what is rejected in the previous era becomes an ordinary fact of speech (something leaves along with the era and its speech life), for new generations and under the new conditions, another set of normatively discussed borrowings appears. And this process goes along with the development of the language.

It is quite clear that in the composition of the general literary language, special borrowed vocabulary does not lose its terminological character. And here we directly approach the second aspect - the functional, linguistic assessment of new borrowings.

In articles and books by journalists and writers, the problem of foreign borrowings is usually considered in an undivided form. Elements of scientific and technical terminology (boiler, barrage, preference, designer, precessional, display, laser, computer, stress, etc.), exoticisms and words close to them (Beatle, ketch, hippie, smog, lobby, etc.), artificially created science fiction terms (blaster), foreign words in general use (car, publicity, rally, escalation, hobby, etc.).

Modern opponents of borrowings, making an exception for historical foreign words, oppose almost any foreign words and often reduce the problem to a resolute demand to eradicate foreign words (as a symbol of foreignness) in the name of "Russianness of the Russian language" (A. Yugov).

The dominance of foreign words is directly associated with the incomprehensibility and inaccessibility of the scientific language, "super-learned terminology", which "spoils the language beyond recognition" (K. Yakovlev).

Researchers still consider the theory of language borrowing (and rightly so) insufficiently developed. Yu. S. Sorokin speaks of two points of view in elucidating this issue, outwardly excluding each other, but converging in common theoretical foundations. The first point of view in the history of linguistics is represented by various puristic trends. Its main drawback is its lack of history. Recognizing the legitimacy of what is already in the language, she rejected what continues to take shape in it. The second point of view, which opposes the first, recognizes the inevitability of borrowings and, from a scientific standpoint, looks at them as main source"enrichment" of the vocabulary of the Russian language. This is a position of passive acceptance of any borrowings, a kind of historical fatalism. Both of these points of view turn out to be the same in their one-sided assessment of the phenomenon of borrowing (which, by its very essence, is two-sided). In both cases, the native, borrowing language is assigned a passive role - a simple acceptance, assimilation of foreign elements.

The normal process of borrowing is a creative, active act. It implies a high level of originality, a high degree of development of the assimilating language. The effectiveness and meaning of language contacts do not lie in the number of borrowings from language to language, but in those processes of creative excitement, creative activity and strength that arise in the language's own means as a result of these contacts.

When discussing the question of the admissibility of this or that borrowing, it should be remembered that it is not the borrowed words themselves that are bad, but their inaccurate, incorrect use, their use unnecessarily, without taking into account the genres and styles of speech, the purpose of this or that statement.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bragina A. A. Neologisms in Russian. -M. : "Enlightenment", 1973.

2. Komlev N. G. Foreign words and expressions. - M.: Slovo, 1999.

3. Lustrova Z. N., Skvortsov L. I., Deryagin V. Ya. On the culture of Russian speech. -M. : Knowledge, 1987.

4. Rosenthal D. E., Golub I. B., Telenkova M. A. “Modern Russian language”. - M.: Rolf, 2001.

5. Sorokin Yu. S. The development of the vocabulary of the Russian literary language in the 30-90s of the XIX century. -M. -L., 1965.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also words borrowed from other languages. Borrowing as an element of a foreign language, transferred from one language to another as a result of language contacts, can undoubtedly be considered as a way to replenish the vocabulary of a language. Words are usually borrowed, less often syntactic and phraseological turns.
The borrowing of sounds and derivational morphemes occurs as a result of their secondary isolation from a larger number of borrowed words. Borrowings adapt to the system of the borrowing language and are often so assimilated by them that the foreign origin of such words is not felt by the native speakers of this language and is found only with the help of etymological analysis.
The influx of borrowings in the Russian language especially increased in the 90s of the twentieth century, which is associated with active socio-political processes in Russia, changes in the economy, culture and moral orientation of society. The process of borrowing was covered in research and scientific literature in different periods of the country's development in different ways. Krysin L.P., Aristova V.M., Dyakov A.I. dealt with this problem. In their works, they investigated the causes of borrowing and the principles of borrowing assimilation. By the end of the twentieth century, domestic linguists E.M. Vereshchagin, V.P. Kostomarov, S.G. Ter-Minasova and others explore the process of borrowing in cultural terms. According to their research, the influence of the English language on the modern Russian language is felt both at the lexical, morphological, grammatical and phonetic levels, and at the level of the Russian-speaking culture.
One of the areas that are particularly susceptible to changes in the lexical composition and borrowings, both lexical and cultural, is, today, the field of sports. Sports terms of English origin are such an integral part of the modern Russian language that often their origin is not felt (for example: hockey, football, time, start, finish, etc.). In recent years, many names of new sports have appeared: windsurfing, skateboarding, freestyle, bobsledding, ski streaming, skeleton, as well as various forms of leisure activities: bowling, diving, curling, etc. These words are very often found in magazines, TV programs.
The process of mastering the latest Anglicisms by the Russian language is influenced by various factors, one of which is “the presence in the borrowing language of established systems of terms”* related to a particular area.
It is possible to single out the main reasons for borrowing sports vocabulary. It:
the need for a name for a new sport (curling, squash)

The need to distinguish between concepts that are close in content (runner and sprinter - sprinter)

The need for specialization of concepts (judge and referee - sports judge.)

Replacing phrases with one word (streetball is street basketball, stayer is a long-distance runner)

Social and psychological reasons should also be highlighted:

Perception of a foreign word as more prestigious, better sounding (bol, set);

The use of borrowed words in the speech of authoritative personalities during popular TV programs, in articles in newspapers and magazines.

Phonetically and graphically, some anglicisms are subject to interference from the Russian language (for example, big air - big air or big air).
grammatical assimilation. Most of the studied anglicisms are included in the system of agreement inherent in the Russian language. Nouns change by gender, number, cases, etc. (diving, powerlifting competitions)
semantic assimilation. Some unambiguous English sports terms retain monosemy (narrow meaning) in the Russian language system, for example: scuba - scuba diving (from the English scuba - self-contained underwater breathing apparatus).
For others, the lexical meaning is expanded due to determinologization, i.e. sports term goes beyond its scope, for example: freestyle “… freestyle adherents can be found even in the fashion industry; free style in clothes is chosen not only by the younger generation ..». (TV program "Fashionable Sentence") If borrowed Anglicism has a synonym or Russian analogue, Anglicism expresses a narrower and more specific concept (diving - diving, immersion).
Thematically, I have divided the words into six groups:
1. Names of sports: baseball, windsurfing, diving, curling, snowboarding, etc.

2. Names of athletes and attendants: goalkeeper, catcher, rider, runner, diver, midfielder, forward, etc.
3. Names of sports equipment, items of equipment, for example: scuba, snowboard, bat, etc.
4. Names of technical elements, techniques: sparring, crossing, offside, dribbling.
5. Names of errors, violations: penalty, strike, foul, break.
6. Names of sports grounds: outfield, base, court, ring, etc.
In the cultural aspect, there is a borrowing of the concept, as well as elements of the culture of English-speaking countries. For example, the word “curling” includes, firstly, the concept defined as “a kind of Scottish game, the participants of which compete in rolling smooth round stones on ice ...” *, secondly, the concept of British “gentlemanship”.
So, anglicisms, getting into the Russian language, are gradually assimilated: they adapt to the sound system of the Russian language, obey the rules of word formation and inflection, losing their non-Russian pronunciation to one degree or another.
In addition, along with the English vocabulary, the Russian language borrows the cultural realities of the English people (sports), in particular, certain concepts of the English-speaking culture. It is not the first time that the Russian language is faced with the need to borrow foreign words, so those lexical units that are in demand will enrich it, as has happened more than once in the past, and the unclaimed ones will be rejected.

2.2 The specifics of the translation of sports terms

Regardless of the context, the term is translated as a term - a complete and absolute equivalent, and therefore, according to a number of experts, it is one of the units that do not complicate the translator.
However, it should be noted that only ideally the term is unambiguous and devoid of synonyms and connotations. But even with this “ideal” position, one can speak of its complete translatability only in cases where the elements of the terminology are in their natural environment, i.e. in the scientific style of speech, in the sublanguage of science; we are primarily interested in the translation of the term in a literary text.
The myth about the single meaning of the term and the absence of synonyms for it is easy to dispel with a simple dictionary reference - this is clearly seen in a comparative plan. Elements of terminology in recent times - the farther, the more - are found far beyond the boundaries of scientific literature, but in essence in all genres: in the era of scientific and technological revolution, science and technology have become almost the main suppliers of new vocabulary for the modern general literary language. There is a lot of terminology in popular science and science fiction works, there is it in social and journalistic literature, terminology and fiction, and even poetry are not alien.
However, the behavior of the term in a scientific and artistic text is not the same, as, accordingly, the functions it performs in these genres, which are different in terms of means of expression, are also not the same. In its natural environment, as a component of the terminological system and sublanguage of the corresponding science, the term plays only a naming role, the role of a sign pointing to a precisely defined concept, while in a work of art it primarily fulfills the stylistic task assigned to it by the author, without losing, however, , and its subject matter.
Before translating, the term must be recognized in the text, distinguished from the elements of the general language vocabulary. Difficulties arise mainly because of homonymy (between two terms, between a term and a non-term), due to the attribution of a terminological status to an ordinary lexical or phraseological unit - sometimes a "former term", and also in connection with the "transparent" internal form of the term. Homonyms are sometimes easier to recognize among borrowed terms, but often they also make it difficult for a translator. The situation is more difficult with the terms native to the FL. Many of them, being elements of the corresponding terminological system, at the same time have a sufficiently “transparent” internal form to mislead the translator. It happens that a scientific or technical concept is named in different languages ​​by terms that also coincide in their internal form: English, tooth, fr. dent, germ. Zahn in many meanings are covered by the subject content and internal form of Rus. tooth. But the trouble is that this cannot be considered a pattern: there are many terms for which such a coincidence is not observed.
The translation of terms in a literary text itself, as a rule, obeys the basic principle of translating this category of words: a term is translated by a term. Some prerequisites are also similar: for the implementation of such a translation, it is necessary that an equivalent term exists in the TL and the translator knows not only the fact of its presence, but also the exact form. These premises require some clarification. The translator cannot "re-express" the term in TL, which is natural in relation to other lexical and phraseological means; the term FL should be replaced by the term TL in its generally accepted, official form, established in the appropriate terminology. But what to do when there is still no equivalent of the term in the language? Descriptive translation is not enough here. So the translator has little choice: he needs a term; either he borrows it - usually from a foreign language (transcription), or "composes" his own (tracing paper, neologism, compound term, etc.), or assigns the status of a term to a general language unit.
When translating a literary text, in contrast to a scientific one, other transformations are also acceptable: replacement of a specific concept with a generic one (a boat instead of a skiff, or a gig); descriptive translation - a general language unit instead of a terminological one, an approximate replacement with a synonym, and even a zero translation. And here, as in relation to realities, the choice of a suitable method of translation depends on the semantic significance of the term, on its “illumination” in the text. But basically this choice, as in relation to any lexical means, is determined by the context and, in particular, the stylistic role of the term. As a rule, in the absence of an equivalent term in the TL, the least desirable are those techniques that are inherent in terminological translation. The introduction of a new term, which does not exist in the corresponding branch of science in the TL, into a literary text is a very risky business. Word creation in the field of terminology should be left to specialists - scientific workers in cooperation with philologists, and a translator of fiction can be advised to resort to it only in extreme cases and without fail with the blessing of specialists.
Speaking about the stylistic function of the term and terminological or professional speech in fiction, one should also point out the use of the term by the writer as an element of speech characteristics.
In direct speech, there are often not individual terms, but pieces of terminological text that imitate "professional language", and even more often - stable turns, related by their origin to a particular field of science, but subsequently received figurative meanings. In scientific medical literature, terms that lack a precisely defined content are usually avoided: smallpox is preferred to be called variola, and chickenpox - varicella. In fiction, however, these popular, albeit not too definite, names are extremely convenient synonyms used by writers - in fact, like any synonyms - for example, to nuance the speech of different characters, to build life-true images. The position of the translator, who has to repeat such a nuance in another language, is unenviable when there is no means suitable for style in the TL.
However, with the development of medical science, many of the popular names of diseases either fell into disuse or acquired a clearer outline and entered the medical nomenclature. On the other hand, many purely scientific names have become quite popular. Such a "scientific" awareness of the broad masses of readers, especially in the field of medical, military, economic sciences, in the sciences of space, etc., allows for a fairly wide use of the corresponding terms in fiction without explaining them.
Summarizing, we present what has been said about terminological translation in the form of theses:
1. The basic principle of this translation is that a term is transmitted by a term.
2. Unlike a scientific text, in fiction, terms, especially those native to a foreign language, are more difficult to recognize; and with the preliminary selection of them from the general language vocabulary, the choice of methods for their translation is connected.

3. Deviations from the basic principle of translation are allowed mainly in cases where the term in the given text has no terminological meaning, does not carry a significant semantic load, and, of course, if it has lost its connection with the corresponding terminological system.
4. If there is no equivalent term in the TL in the scientific text, it is borrowed or a new one is created, or a terminological meaning is given to a general literary unit, and in a literary text other methods are preferred, trying, nevertheless, not to violate the “terminological sound” of the text: replacing with another ( usually close in meaning, and sometimes even far from equivalent) term, compensation of a specific concept by a generic one, a synonym for varying degrees of proximity, an approximate correspondence (ordinary word) and even a zero translation.
5. The internal form of the term, which is not taken into account in the translation of scientific literature, may have a meaning in literary translation, but only in cases where it plays a similar role in the original. A transparent internal form can, on the other hand, become a source of translation failures - due to the failure to recognize the term or the inability to combine the terminological meaning with the figurative one in translation.
Current state Philological scientific thought convincingly shows that every language has the main stages of its historical development, that its verbal structure is closely connected with the history of the development of the people, with social, political, cultural factors that determine its existence in each historical era. It is depending on these fundamental scientific provisions that one of the most important and urgent tasks of linguistic science becomes an extremely clear study of the lexical composition of the language, the ways of its development and enrichment, the analysis and study of intralinguistic processes, which to a large extent strengthens the theoretical and practical foundations science.
Sports terminology belongs to the lexical layer of the special structure of the English language, which has not yet attracted the attention of linguists. Of course, it cannot be denied that a number of publications are devoted to sports terminology in various countries of the world, which, however, are more informative than scientific in nature. Therefore, a special study of English sports terminology, both in diachronic and synchronous terms, which brings clarity to many still unknown pages of the social, political and cultural life of past generations, seems to be a very important and urgent task of modern linguistics.

In linguistics borrowing- this is the process of assimilation by one language of a word, expression or meaning of another language, as well as the result of this process - the borrowed word itself. Borrowing is an important factor in the development and change of the lexical system of a language.

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Borrowing classifications

According to the language - the source of borrowing

Depending on the donor language, borrowings are called anglicisms, arabisms, germanisms, etc. In some cases, the name of the borrowing may not coincide with the modern name of the language adopted by its speakers, but come from an alternative or more ancient name of the country, people, source language or their ancestors or territorial predecessors: for example, borrowings from the Czech language are called Bohemisms (from the historical name of Bohemia), from French - Gallicisms (cf. Gaul, Gauls). The name of the borrowing may cover a group of related languages ​​(Slavicism, Turkism) and so on.

Theoretically, it is customary to distinguish between borrowings from closely related, distantly related and unrelated languages ​​according to a number of parameters.

By type of contact

Borrowings can be both direct (between the languages ​​of neighboring peoples and cultures) and indirect - with the participation of an intermediary language. Borrowing from one language to several with minimal change appearance and the meanings are called internationalisms. The way of borrowing can be oral, through live dialogic communication of speakers of different languages, and written, through contact with foreign vocabulary in book sources. With the help of the latter, it is possible to borrow elements belonging to an older stage of the same language (resurrection of archaisms, for example, in poetic language: Richard Wagner in his musical dramas, Count Alexei Tolstoy and others).

By way of borrowing

According to the method of adaptation of a foreign word, the following are distinguished:

• lexical borrowings(transition of both the form and the meaning of a word from the donor language to the recipient language with the corresponding phonetic and grammatical adaptation). Both whole words and parts of words can be borrowed: (suffixes, prefixes, to a limited extent even endings: duke from him. Herzog , archpriest, chin-in, antipyr-in etc.;
• semantic borrowings(the formation of a new meaning in a word already existing in the recipient language under the influence of another language: for example, Rus. touch"evoke an emotional response" The woman's request touched him) influenced by French toucher; mouse(animal) > (computer) mouse(kind of computer manipulator) by analogy with English mouse, for which the value of such a manipulator appeared earlier.
• In addition to the actual borrowings, scientists distinguish tracing paper- a literal morphemic translation of a foreign word. Calques are created according to the word-building models of foreign words from the roots and affixes of the native language, corresponding in their meanings to the morphemes of the original word. Such are in the Russian language many words of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) origin, tracing when translating liturgical books from Greek: euphony(gr. euphonia(euphony) from eu-"good" and -phonia"sound") hierarchy(gr. hierarchy(hierarchy) from hieros-"sacred" ( hiereios"priest, priest") and -archia"beginning, bossing, seniority" (from arche"Start"). Russian word influence goes up to him. Einfluss (ein + fliessen = in + pour), which owes its origin to lat. influence (fr. influence); lexeme subject- Polish. przedmiot is modeled after him. Gegenstand and Objekt, originating from lat. objectus; accusative syntactic turnover with an infinitive like "my soul loves you" (Derzhavin) is taken from the Latin language.

Semantic tracing paper also often called semantic borrowings. Tracing is a mild way of mastering a foreign language meaning and is widely used in the languages ​​of those countries where public opinion does not approve of direct forms of borrowing, considering them destructive for the language (Czech, Finnish, Icelandic).

Spheres of use of borrowings

Loanwords have two main uses:

1. designation of new concepts and phenomena borrowed into a given culture (in the history of Russia, this is, in ancient times, church vocabulary that came along with Christianity, scientific terminology since the 18th century, in recent decades - the terminology of modern music and sports trends, economics and information technology);
2. designation of concepts and realities of foreign cultures associated with various kinds of traditions. Examples are words that have penetrated into the Russian language, but are not used to designate elements of Russian culture, words-conversions. mister, monsieur, madam, mademoiselle, variants of a person's position in society and the corresponding titles ( ruler, samurai, shogun), ceremonies ( bar mitzvah), sports ( sumo, petanque), names of objects (Japanese ritual dolls daruma and netsuke), musical instruments ( sitar, saz), names of culinary products ( wasabi) and dishes ( sashimi), drinks ( sake, whiskey), types ( pagoda) and examples of architectural structures (Big Ben, Stonehenge).

Internationalisms

Powerful layers of borrowed vocabulary in many languages ​​are composed of words - internationalisms often terminological. So, in the European tradition, scientific and technical vocabulary, formed from Latin and Greek verbal roots, has long been international. In contrast to the change (most often narrowing) of the meaning in other variants of borrowings, internationalisms in a number of languages ​​almost completely match both sound-letter forms and meanings, which serves to ensure the unity of the terminology of different areas of human activity. Such words are understandable to educated speakers of many languages. Examples of internationalisms are words such as radius(lat. radius "beam") or a word derived from it radio; also jurisprudence(lat. jurisprudence), TV (television from the Greek tele-"far away" and Latin. vision"sight, vision"). In recent decades, English has become the main source of internationalisms, the influence of which is noticeable in such areas of human activity as Information Technology(examples of internationalisms: computer, printer, router, scanner, Internet, site, Wikipedia and many others), contemporary music ( jazz, rock, punk, swing, blues, rap) and economic theory and practice ( business, marketing, management, merchandiser, outsourcing).

Narrowing the value when borrowing

If in the source language the word was polysemantic, then when borrowing, only one of its meanings is usually taken, that is, the meaning of the word is narrowed, for example:

• English killer "killer in general" → "assassin"
• English safe "safe, reliable, safe" → "safe"
• English printer "printer, publisher, printer" → "printer"
• English speaker "speaking, speaker, announcer, lecturer, speaker, loudspeaker" → "speaker"
• "satellite" → English Sputnik "Soviet spacecraft"
• "perestroika" → English Perestroika "Gorbachev's reforms in the USSR"

The same applies to calques:

• fr. impression "embossing, printing, imprint, impression" → "impression"

The role of borrowing

There are widespread purist ideas that borrowings clog up the language, cause irreparable harm to it, because they destroy the links between native words and introduce alien meanings into its system, which, however, contradicts such obvious facts that many of the richest languages ​​(English, German, Russian, Japanese) contain entire layers of borrowed words. In addition, in most cases, the borrowing of other people's words accompanies the assimilation of technological, cultural, social and other innovations. Hence the enormous importance of borrowed words for the history of culture.

Examples

Slavic Christian terminology taken from the Greeks along with Christianity, Russian maritime terminology of Dutch-German origin, like all maritime affairs, general European musical terminology coming from Italy, fashion terminology taken from France, etc. Some borrowed words , such as the names of metals, animals and from other languages. No matter how weak the cultural development of the inseparable Indo-Europeans, they still had to have trade and other relations with other peoples, and borrowing could undoubtedly occur. Science is not yet able to determine such ancient borrowings, although something is likely to be revealed in the further joint work of archaeologists and linguists.

The most reliable criterion in determining the borrowing of a word is its phonetic composition. The contradiction of the sounds of a word to the known phonetic laws characteristic of a given language usually testifies to the alien origin of the word. For example, Russian word"brada", used earlier in high speech, next to the main word "beard", is borrowed from Old Church Slavonic (through the Church Slavonic language), because ra(instead of expected oro, available in the natural Russian word beard) contradicts the sound law of the so-called full agreement (the same with hail - city, guardian - watchman etc.).

Other criteria - semasiological (difference in meaning), morphological (difference in formal relation) - are less reliable and can be used only if it is impossible to find out the origin of a word by its phonetic composition. So, secondary unnecessary meanings of words husband"man" and wife"woman" is possibly borrowed from the Latin homo and mulier through Church Slavonic.

Usually, the words “learned” (German Lehnwörter) and “foreign” (German Fremdwörter) are usually distinguished. It is customary to refer to the first words, mostly learned a very long time ago and not giving the impression of something alien, that is, which have become “native” in this language, for example, prince, knight, lime, room, ship, horse, customs, bread, king, church etc. The second includes words that have been learned mostly recently and still retain their foreign appearance: aberration, officer, differentiation, parallax, adjutant etc. This division, however, cannot be called strictly scientific; it is based on a subjective impression, which is very variable, and serves only as the basis for at least some kind of classification. Criticism of it can be found in the work of S. Bulich "Church-Slavic elements in the modern literary and folk Russian language" (part I, St. Petersburg, 1893. Introduction); the most important literature of the question is indicated there, and its very process is characterized. See his own “Borrowed Words and Their Significance for the Development of Language” (“Russian Philological Bulletin”, Warsaw, 1886, No. 2).