General types of social and socio-economic groups. Production-economic system Production-economic groups

A modern enterprise is a complex production and economic system. It is characterized by the following system features:
the diversity of the structure, which is expressed in a large number of various structural elements, such as workshops, farms, laboratories;
the difference in the nature of elements, which, as is known, is one of the essential features of complex systems, is very pronounced in production and economic systems.
As the main elements of production, labor force, means of labor, objects of labor are considered.
This basic differentiation can naturally be deepened and expanded.
The multi-connectedness of the elements of the production and economic system, which is expressed in the presence of a wide variety of connections between the elements of the PES. Transfer of various parts in the course of the technological process, transfer various kinds energy, providing the production process with repairs and tools, information communications, transport communications, social communications between members of the PES team - this is by no means a complete list of various types of communication elements.
Connections and relations of PES elements are distinguished by stability, constant proportionality.
Dynamism, which consists in the constant change of states of the production and economic system, is its characteristic feature. This dynamism is expressed in the cyclical nature of the production process, its change over time, in fluctuations in the structure and relationships of its elements, and in a multitude of external and internal influences.
Multi-criteria, which is one of the most characteristic properties of the production and economic system. On the one hand, there are many criteria, such as, for example, the range of products, the total volume of products sold, the amount of profit, profitability, the fulfillment of tasks for new technology, and labor productivity. Only a multiple evaluation of such indicators will characterize the system. On the other hand, all subsystems at different levels of the PES hierarchy can be characterized by their own particular criteria, which together form a sequence of goals and criteria.
Probabilistic nature of production processes. The nature of the functioning of any production is probabilistic. constantly influenced by numerous random factors. At any time, certain elements of the equipment may fail as a result of breakdowns, and thereby lose certain part active fixed assets. A marriage randomly occurs both in its production (technological marriage) and due to supplies (purchased marriage), which leads to labor losses. Losses in the labor force due to staff turnover, illnesses and other factors, disruptions in the supply of components and materials are unexpected. Random are the duration of all production operations that affect the production cycle.
This list could be continued. Such phenomena lead to a delay in production plans, to an increase in unfinished production. For a quantitative assessment of randomness, it is necessary to organize the collection of statistical data and their mathematical processing.
Probabilistic modeling of production processes will make it possible to establish the levels of insurance stocks that ensure that production fulfills its tasks with a given probability. An experienced manager, even without mathematical training, knows that it is necessary to protect the production process from accidental failures by creating a certain level of safety stocks. However, what should be the level of these safety stocks can only be determined mathematically. Constant collection and processing of statistical materials and probabilistic modeling of production allow us to determine the current characteristics and current levels of safety stocks. Depending on the nature of the elements in the enterprise, the following subsystems can be distinguished.
The technical subsystem is an interconnected, interdependent complex of equipment (machines, mechanisms, machine tools and groups of machines, production lines) in an agreed proportional state, designed to solve a specific problem.
Coordination consists in equalizing the throughput of the main production process, in accordance with the technology serving the main and auxiliary production processes, with modern requirements.
The technological subsystem is a set of rules that determine the sequence of operations and production processes, during which products are created with certain parameters and quality. The technological subsystem requires the strict implementation of these rules at all stages of the production process. Management in the technological subsystem consists in the careful development of technology, its further improvement as necessary, and careful monitoring of the quality of work throughout its duration.
The subsystem of joint labor is its necessary organization to achieve a specific goal, the quantitative and qualitative proportions of individual types of labor, their division and mutual relations in the production process.
The economic subsystem is a unity of economic processes and economic relations of all aspects of production. The mechanism of action of economic laws is manifested in the enterprise in the process of movement of its funds in their monetary, production and commodity form. The movement of enterprise funds is the material basis of the technical, technological and socio-economic process at the enterprise.
The social subsystem is the connection of people in the process social production. Its main feature in market conditions is private ownership of the means of production. The connection of people is the basis for the existence of production and economic systems. The common economic interests of the PES team are to increase the wealth of society as a result of the activities of the team. Since PES acts in the production process as a relatively independent team, this team has its own specific economic interests that do not contradict the interests of the whole society or an individual. But individual groups and members of this team within the enterprise, based on the characteristics of technology and organization of production, solve different problems and have a certain differentiation of goals and interests.
Since the collective of the enterprise is its basis and active force, it must solve not only technical and economic problems, but also the tasks of educating people, raising the cultural and technical level, education, knowledge, etc.
The production organization subsystem allows rational use of people, objects of labor, factory space, creates conditions for increasing production efficiency within the limits of given resources.
All of these subsystems are interconnected and only in their unity make up the enterprise as a system.
The structure of the enterprise as an object of management. For production, as is known, the following elements are necessary: the object of labor, the means of production and human labor, its expedient activity.
The preparatory phase of production includes the following processes:
- financing;
- creation of a product model and a program for its manufacture;
- selection and training of personnel;
- providing the enterprise with the means of production;
- logistics.
To implement the processes of direct manufacturing of products, along with preparation, it is necessary to ensure production. First of all, it includes the provision of equipment and tools, repair support, energy supply, etc. The same group should include processes aimed at ensuring high and stable product quality. Finally, this group will also include processes related to ensuring occupational health and safety.
The processes of transport and economic services constitute an independent production service group.
Processes for the sale of finished products are also an independent group. By analogy with the preparatory processes, the implementation processes are at the junction of the sphere of production and the sphere of circulation. For the first they are the final act, for the second - the initial.
Enterprise as complex dynamic system constantly evolving. Many enterprises have their own scientific bases (research laboratories, design bureaus, etc.), which, along with external research and design organizations, carry out scientific developments for the further development of production. At the enterprises, as a rule, work is also carried out on the technical re-equipment of production.
The enterprises are also doing a lot of work on the social development of the team.
The foregoing allows us to conclude that the elements of a controlled system include the processes of enterprise development: scientific, technical and social.
From the point of view of a systematic approach, the managed (production) system of an enterprise can be divided according to the processes into subsystems: production development, production preparation, main production, production support and maintenance, product sales (Fig. 4.5). At the same time, each of the subsystems can be considered as a system.
The relationship of the enterprise subsystem as a control object is shown in fig. 4.6.
Further.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION "VITEBSK STATE TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY"

Department of Economic Theory and Marketing

COURSE WORK

in macroeconomics

on the topic: " Financial and industrial groups and their role in the modern economy”

Fulfilled

Student gr. 2MN-27

Frantsev Artyom Andreevich

Supervisor

Selezneva Yulia Mikhailovna

VITEBSK

2013

1. Theoretical aspects of functioningfinancial and industrial groups and their role in the modern economy 5

1.1. The concept and types of financial and industrial groups 5

1.2. Principles of modern functioning of financial and industrial groups 8

1.3. The role of financial and industrial groups in the economy of industrialized countries 11

2. Financial and industrial groups as a factor in the development of economic integration 13

2.1. Prerequisites and features of the formation of financial and industrial groups in the Republic of Belarus 13

2.2. Analysis of indicators and efficiency of functioning of financial and industrial groups in the Republic of Belarus 22

3.Problems and prospects for the development of financial and industrial groups in the Republic of Belarus 27

Conclusion 32

List of sources used 35

Annex A 38

Annex B 40

Annex D 41
INTRODUCTION

Modern economic policy aimed at achieving With stable economic growth is associated with the creation of the basic institutions of a market economy. At the forefront is the issue of formation and n integrated corporate structures, the organizational and economic forms of which are holdings, transnational companies R portions, large companies, financial and industrial groups. This is not the first time that domestic industry has turned to integrir about bathroom structures. An example is the sind created in the 1920s. and kats and trusts included in them; in the 60s associations; in the 80s production associations, research and production associations, complexes, scientific and technical centers. The beginning of mass privatization coincides with the emergence of such integration structures as holdings. Development and The key to the process of creating integrated corporate structures is the formation of financial and industrial groups.

In the form of financial and industrial groups, an integrated scheme is being implemented. a tions of financial, industrial and commercial structures while maintaining e the legal independence of each of the group members. In pr about in the process of implementing the main tasks of financial and industrial groups should become the basis of the system of inv e erasing the economy; they are formed as integrated structures capable of self-development in market conditions, forming effective and sustainable cooperation aimed at developing priority a production boards. All this determines the relevance of this topic.

The first financial and industrial group was officially registered at the end 1996 after the issuance of the Decree of the President of the Republic of Belarus dated November 27, 1995 No. 482 “On the establishment and operation of economic groups in the Republic of Belarus”. This Decree stimulated many initiatives n kov and enterprises to organize joint activities, a number of which culminated in the creation of financial and industrial groups. Exit of the Law of the Republic of Belarus dated June 4, 1999 No. 265-З "On financial and industrial groups" became the basis of the legislative framework for the subsequent formation of financial and industrial groups in Belarus.

In market conditions, the formation of financial and industrial complexes is inevitable. The mechanisms of their creation, composition and structure can be different. h due to the different levels of economic development, the state of the financial, stock and commodity markets.

The purpose of the course work: to explore the activities of financial and industrial groups, to identify their significance and impact on the country's economy.

In this course work, the characteristics of financial and industrial groups are given: the concept, types, role in the formation of market e about nomics, legal conditions of formation, functioning problems, development prospects.

THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF THE FUNCTIONING OF FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GROUPS AND THEIR ROLE IN THE ECONOMY

The concept and types of financial and industrial groups

In the 90s. 20th century as a result of large-scale processes of privatization of state enterprises, the disintegration of industrial and production associations began, which led to the disintegration of the economy. One of the main prerequisites for the legislative regulation of associations of legal entities in the form of financial and industrial groups was the recognition of the need for the functioning in the economy of our country along with small and medium-sized business structures of large industrial and economic complexes. Since it is large structures that ensure the competitiveness of the products of enterprises in high-tech industrial sectors and activate the processes of investment in the spheres of the real economy.

Financial industrial groups are a set of legal entities that have fully or partially combined their tangible and intangible assets on the basis of an appropriate agreement on the creation of financial and industrial groups for the purpose of technological and economic integration for the implementation of investment and other projects and programs aimed at increasing competitiveness, development new markets, increasing production efficiency, creating new jobs.

Financial and industrial groups are often called "special economic zones", as they allow minimizing many risks and obtaining a favorable tax regime. Financial and industrial groups are quite attractive for foreign investors as well. In essence, many business associations correspond to all the signs of a financial and industrial group, but are not such, since they have not gone through the process of state registration.

Financial-industrial groups are created in all CIS member states, but in the Western economy this special organizational type of associations is absent. Foreign analogues of domestic financial and industrial groups can be considered related enterprises or concerns in Germany, partnership groups in France, holding companies in the UK and the USA. The essence of such formations is that it is an association of participants that does not have the status of a legal entity, which is based on economic subordination and control of one participant over others.

At present the main normative act regulating the organization and activities of financial and industrial groups is the Law of the Republic of Belarus dated 04.06.1999 No. 265-Z "On financial and industrial groups" (with amendments and additions).

Group members involved in the production sector can be recognized as a consolidated group of taxpayers, i.e. a single subject of tax legal relations.

From the point of view of antimonopoly law, the members of the group, even if they are formally autonomous (independent) legal entities, are part of the overall structure, are managed from a single center and engage in entrepreneurial activities to achieve the interests of the group as a whole. Therefore, in the antimonopoly legislation, financial and industrial groups are recognized as a single economic entity.

Financial and industrial groups can be classified according to the following criteria:

method of creation;
the form of production and economic integration;
degree of business diversification;
the initiator of the formation;
scale of activity;
organizational structure.

By options organizational structure, financial and industrial groups can be divided into:

"soft" (consortium, association, union);
"hard" (holding type).

Members of a financial-industrial group can build their relationship in two ways: either as interaction between the parent and subsidiaries, or as interaction on the terms of full or partial consolidation of their tangible and intangible assets. In the first case, we are dealing with a de facto holding model, when the main (parent) company has the opportunity through its block of shares (stakes) in subsidiaries, i.e. by virtue of the predominant participation in their authorized capital, manage the activities of each of them. It can be said that the first type of financial-industrial group is an entrepreneurial association based on a "participation system", economic subordination and corporate control. In such an association, the main company performs the functions of a central company, through which, in fact, the activities of the group as a whole are conducted.

A financial and industrial group of the second type is a voluntary contractual business association of independent legal entities. According to statistics, the majority of registered (official) financial-industrial groups are created exactly according to the type of associations on the basis of an agreement; they are sometimes referred to as "soft non-holding corporations" or "contractual holdings". A financial-industrial group of this type is created by concluding an agreement on the creation of financial-industrial groups by the participants of the group, in accordance with which a central company is established. That is, the central company, in fact, is a subsidiary or dependent company in relation to all participants in financial and industrial groups. By its legal nature, an agreement on the creation of a financial and industrial group is a type of a simple partnership agreement.

Principles of modern functioning of financial and industrial groups

AT general case financial and industrial groups can be of three types: vertically integrated, horizontally integrated and conglomerate type. Single-bank structures and multi-bank structures are also subdivided.

From the point of view of the structural organization of financial and industrial groups, the goals and method of its formation determine how the assets of the participants should be combined and (as a result) what the consolidated balance sheet of the group participants should be.

From a historical point of view, banks have not always been the initiators of the creation of financial and industrial groups. Often the reason for their creation is local legislation that prohibits non-banking entities from engaging in certain banking operations.

Alliance banks in financial and industrial groups should perform the following functions:
- Settlement and cash services for industrial enterprises-participants of the group: depositary services; guaranteeing the issue of securities issued by financial and industrial groups, and dealer functions for their implementation; financial consulting: ensuring the implementation of foreign economic contracts; project finance: trust operations:
- leasing operations in the interests of group members:
- placement and management of free funds in the most profitable segments of the financial market;

Search for investments for targeted programs of financial and industrial groups and their maintenance; lending to individual programs: financial study of targeted programs: development of financial schemes aimed at minimizing costs.

Merging of credit institutions with industrial enterprises should be carried out on the following principles:

voluntariness and paid entry and the possibility of exit upon compensation for the lost profits of the group;
openness to accepting new members if their inclusion creates a synergistic effect;
voluntariness of delegation of a part of managerial functions to the central company or holding;
maintaining the autonomy of each of the members of the association;
obligatory conduct of a unified strategic policy;
availability of settlement accounts of enterprises only in banks included in;
priority orientation of the alliance banks to service enterprises FIG and achieving goalsfinancial and industrial groups.

The use of financial and industrial groups as forms of cooperation between financial and industrial institutions allows:

restore previously broken technological ties in industry;
create a financial mechanism for the development of production;
to increase the size (balance sheet currency) of the alliance banks by attracting additional clients to them;
increase the sustainability of both industrial enterprises and the banking coalition;
increase the competitiveness of products;
carry out innovative activities, the latest scientific developments, the introduction of which will improve the quality of the output product;
accumulate the received financial resources only in banksfinancial and industrial groups, preventing their dispersion among other credit institutions, which will allow organizing their work solely in the interests of targeted programs;
all members financial and industrial groups, including banks, to receive additional profit from the sale of products;
use the internal price mechanism and thereby avoid multiple taxation;
have a consolidated balance sheet, which, with such a merger, can reach a significant size, which will greatly facilitate both the receipt of foreign investment and large loans;
reduce transactional, technological and information costs;
coalition banks to participate in project financing, which will increase the profitability of projects under development;
to act in the market in two roles as an independent company and asfinancial and industrial groups, which will provide additional opportunities for the acquisition of orders and the sale of products;
use the integral image of successful companies to gain additional advantages not only in the Russian, but also in the global market;
to compete with powerful foreign companies that are increasingly occupying the Russian market and have an advantage over fragmented Russian firms that are practically devoid of investment and external financing, operating in a self-financing mode, which greatly limits their development.

To get the bank a reliable credit clientele with liquid collateral, large equity capital, and a strong consolidated balance sheet, and thereby solve the problem of placing large assets. In addition, with the success of one or another financial and industrial group, the image of a large bank will also grow.
When forming financial and industrial groups, the following method is also used. It consists in creating a group of so-called "financial pools" in the structure, which, in addition to banks, should include insurance companies, pension funds, investment companies and funds, brokerage houses, mutual insurance funds and other bodies that accumulate cash, some of which can also be directed to

financing of FIG projects. In addition, the creation by the forces of groups or the inclusion in the composition of already existing commercial, trading and export-oriented raw materials companies with a high rate of return will allow "transferring" part of their income to the development of FIG programs.
I would especially like to note that the functioning of FIGs is also beneficial for the state (otherwise the law would not have prescribed so many supportive measures). First, the problem of channeling bank capital into industry is being solved; Secondly. the reliability of the banking system as a whole is increasing, its structure is being improved, becoming more flexible and heterogeneous; thirdly, competition is intensifying: between banks within financial and industrial groups for servicing the most profitable group members, between financial and industrial groups for attracting new large organizations.

The role of financial and industrial groups in the economy of industrialized countries

The practice of development of the leading industrial countries shows that one of the forms of integration of financial and industrial capital (financial-industrial groups) forms the most important element of the economy of these countries and the world economy as a whole. Conducting an active industrial policy in developed countries is also unthinkable without their creation.

In domestic practice, financial and industrial groups are considered as integrated complexes, within which financial and credit institutions and industrial enterprises are united to carry out coordinated production and economic activities. The main principle of creating financial and industrial groups is the unification of financial, scientific, industrial and commercial potentials.

Most industrialized countries are characterized by the absence of a formally fixed structure of financial and industrial groups. The ratio of participants quite often changes, and the basis of their joint activities is, as a rule, trust agreements. In the conditions of the current stage of the scientific and technological revolution, there are continuous changes in the organizational and economic relations of banks with large industrial entities. The currently most characteristic forms of merging financial and industrial capital are developing in the following areas:

development of credit relations;
expanding shareholding opportunities;
improvement of mutual settlement operations and maintenance of current accounts.

In recent years, the need for industrial companies, both domestic and foreign, for borrowed funds has significantly expanded. At the same time, credit ties have become important, acting as a kind of lever of influence of banks on the economic policy of the industrial entities included in the group. Also, a characteristic feature of the modern stage of financial and industrial groups is their diversified focus, which allows them to quickly respond to changes in market conditions. At the same time, despite the steady trend towards diversification of activities, the creation and functioning of financial and industrial groups with a pronounced specialization is observed. This is, first of all, the formation of financial and industrial groups on the basis of enterprises of the most advanced, science-intensive industries that determine the priority areas of scientific and technological progress.

2 FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GROUPS AS A FACTOR OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC INTEGRATION

Prerequisites and features of the formation of FIGs in the Republic of Belarus

Until the beginning of the 1990s, a fairly powerful industrial complex in terms of gross production volumes and technical capabilities was formed in the Republic of Belarus. However, in the conditions of the period of transition to a diversified economy, it became obvious that this complex could not sufficiently meet the needs of society and compete in the world market. The state of the industrial complex was aggravated by the lack of appropriate elements of market infrastructure, unwillingness to open economic borders, reduced effective demand, inflation, insufficiently rapid formation of effective financial and credit institutions, aggravation of the problem of mutual indebtedness of enterprises, and external debts.

Along with the well-known prerequisites that ensure the relevance of the formation of financial and industrial groups in the priority areas of industry for Belarus, there are more specific ones. These include:

an urgent need to create a new system of industrial investment;
formation of integrated structures capable of self-development in market conditions;
an increase in the financial assets of commercial banks and trading firms that are potential investors in the industry;
a serious structural and financial-investment crisis in the industry, especially in the field of R&D and high technologies;
the need to strengthen the already established technological and cooperative ties for the production of competitive products, as well as their development on a basis generally accepted in world practice;
the complexity and lack of experience of independent entry of domestic enterprises into foreign markets;
loss of a significant share of the domestic commodity market of Belarus due to the appearance on it of products of large foreign, including transnational companies.

The creation of financial-industrial groups in industries tending to concentrate production seems to be one of the most effective ways to solve these problems, and financial-industrial groups should serve to realize the existing advantages and potential of the Belarusian industry and overcome shortcomings.

The state in this situation is obliged to support national producers. The state industrial policy should be aimed at protecting industrial enterprises in the areas of production with high level risk and uncertainty of economic activity and, on the contrary, the development of competition and incentives where this contributes to the improvement of production.

An important distinguishing characteristic of many Belarusian enterprises is export-import. The internationalization of markets, adaptation to new methods of organization, knowledge of the projects and costs of competitors become as important as the introduction of new technology and the improvement of production.

It is necessary to promote that domestic enterprises can form the basis of an international group, primarily enterprises of metallurgy, chemical industry, mechanical engineering and electromechanical production of components.

The attitude of the state to the program of assistance to the formation of FIGs is determined by the fact that they are considered in two ways - as one of the measures to overcome the crisis in industry and as the "supporting structure" of the modern developed economic system.

The creation of financial and industrial groups in the Republic of Belarus can be carried out within the framework of the general program for the economy to overcome the crisis, its recovery and further economic growth. The strategy for the formation of financial and industrial groups is based on the economic realities existing in the republic, the analysis of supply and sales markets, the established relations of enterprises within the country and with other regions, and national priorities. This strategy is consistent with other programs - structural adjustment, antimonopoly policy, development of small and medium-sized businesses, conversion, etc.

At the same time, due to the careful individual creation of specific financial and industrial groups, the potential for the emergence of negative trends should be eliminated, which should be facilitated by an objective examination of the projects of financial and industrial groups, a systematic analysis of their activities and the introduction of special regulated measures (contractual agreements between group members, the presence government representatives on supervisory boards).

Financial and industrial groups, although they have a number of objective prerequisites for their creation, are now a foreign entity in the economy of the republic. For the formation of such a new class of structures as financial and industrial groups, it is necessary to carry out a number of measures that create a favorable environment (legal, economic, informational, etc.).

Taking into account the pace of reforming the economy in the republic, it is necessary to transfer the creation of financial and industrial groups to the level public policy. Public administrations should accelerate the synthesis of experience available in other countries and take it into account in the preparation of regulatory documents.

In this case, the main efforts should be focused on the development of a system of regulatory and methodological documents that define the main provisions of the scientific, technical, financial, investment, foreign economic activities of financial and industrial groups, focused primarily on the use of government bodies and business entities.

For enterprises, organizations and institutions, it is necessary to develop methodological materials that reflect the practical issues of the creation and functioning of financial and industrial groups (legislative acts regulating the procedure for the creation and functioning of financial and industrial groups; requirements for a project group; recommendations for creating a project; procedure for passing an examination project; group registration procedure).

It is necessary to educate and train personnel of state administration bodies, top and middle managers of enterprises, and recruit personnel. For this, seminars, consultations, the release of information and methodological materials, the publication of thematic collections, etc. can be used. It is advisable to carry out education and training of personnel as the first stage of work at enterprises in the framework of the creation of financial and industrial groups.

It will be necessary to create a system of comprehensive information and reference support for all participants with information on supply and sales markets, securities and loan capital markets, operational information on the performance of financial and industrial groups, and other data. It is also advisable to create and introduce a register of financial and industrial groups, a database of the main technical and economic parameters of their work. The relatively easy access of business entities to the information necessary for making business decisions creates the prerequisites for the formation of a civilized and efficient market.

The program to promote the formation of financial and industrial groups will be able to ensure a change in the current situation, otherwise the solution of structural problems may turn out to be a matter of the distant future and turn into losses that are difficult to replace.

At the same time, an analysis of the state of affairs in the economy of the Republic of Belarus shows that for some sub-sectors, the organization of several financial and industrial groups is not advisable.

The processes of creating financial and industrial groups in the Republic of Belarus as a tool for implementing structural policy priorities and concentrating investment resources should be based on individual elaboration and thorough examination of projects for organizing the joint use of industrial potential and banking capital, aimed at stimulating development in areas that are crucial for overcoming crisis phenomena in the economy and social sphere.

As priority areas for the design of financial and industrial groups in Belarus, it is advisable:

implementation of investment programs (projects) focused on the creation and production of products that are competitive in the world market, primarily through the implementation of the accumulated scientific and technical potential of high-tech industries, increasing the production of primary processing products of fuel and energy and raw materials, increasing the export orientation of products of defense enterprises , providing the necessary organizational and economic prerequisites for gaining a foothold in specific markets;
the establishment of new technological chains and organizational and economic relations that contribute to the accelerated and rational re-profiling of the existing scientific and industrial activities into areas that ensure the reorientation of resources from inefficient industries to the production of competitive products, as well as the possibility of creating and manufacturing products that bring the country out of the lag in advanced areas science and technology;
implementation of investment projects that correspond to priorities in the areas of the economy identified as top priorities for the state structural policy;
development and implementation of commercially effective investment programs (projects) that are attractive to private investors (non-state financial-credit and investment institutions);
organization of mutually beneficial cooperation ties and implementation of joint investment projects with enterprises in Russia and the CIS member states.

When creating financial and industrial groups with the participation of Western firms, it is advisable to focus on their high tech with the further sale of finished goods initially in the markets of the Commonwealth countries. The participants of such financial-industrial groups should include enterprises of the republic that are most ready to introduce advanced technologies. Such enterprises are characterized by the smallest lag behind Western firms in organization and production technology. With little investment, it is possible to introduce modern technologies into them. These are enterprises of the radio-electronic and electrical engineering industries that do not require large expenditures of energy and raw materials (Integral, BelOMO, etc.).

When forming financial and industrial groups with the participation of enterprises from the CIS countries, primarily Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan, one should focus on their raw materials in the processing and production of final products at Belarusian enterprises. These include enterprises of the chemical and petrochemical industries, mechanical engineering and agricultural engineering, which require large expenditures of energy and raw materials.

When forming national financial and industrial groups, the main task is to increase the competitiveness of Belarusian goods on the world market and the sustainability of enterprises.

For the successful implementation of this concept, systematic organizational and practical work of enterprises and governments is necessary. Since the main partners in financial and industrial groups are located, as a rule, abroad, it is necessary to ensure the coordinated activities of numerous organizations and state institutions, to create interstate and mixed commissions, groups, etc.

Enterprises, research institutes and design bureaus of the defense complex should play a significant role in the formation of financial and industrial groups. A necessary condition for the wide inclusion of these enterprises in the composition of financial and industrial groups should be a clear regulation of the features of the association of non-privatized enterprises, their relationship with general customers and the state budget.

The desire of bank capital to go beyond the deposit and loan services of industrial enterprises, to join operations for the mobilization, redistribution and management of capital flows will be widely spread to industries with high export potential. For example, the formation of financial and industrial groups of the fuel and energy complex is accompanied by increased competition from commercial banks and investment companies.

Among the diversified groups that unite enterprises of industries that are at different stages life cycle, financial and industrial groups will have greater opportunities to redistribute resources from the curtailed industries to the newest ones.

No enterprise should be forced to join a larger group against its will.

The key to clearer definition of the responsibilities of the state and enterprises when creating public joint-stock companies is to identify differences in the responsibilities of the parties, especially in terms of property management and economic and operational activities.

It is necessary to provide for the directors of enterprises to obtain consent to the approval of a particular decision by the owner, if these decisions potentially affect the value and significance of the enterprise, its prospects.

At the same time, due to the carefully thought-out creation of specific financial and industrial groups, the potential for the emergence of negative trends should be eliminated, which should be facilitated by an objective examination of the projects of financial and industrial groups, a systematic analysis of their activities and the introduction of special regulated measures (contractual agreements between group members, the presence government representatives on supervisory boards). Like any new phenomenon, financial and industrial groups, although they have a number of objective prerequisites for creation, act as a foreign entity in the economy of the republic. For the formation of such a new class of structures as financial and industrial groups, it is necessary to carry out a number of measures that create a favorable environment for the formation and functioning of these groups.

Taking into account the pace of reforming the economy in the republic, the creation of financial and industrial groups must be transferred to the level of state policy. Public administrations should accelerate the synthesis of experience available in other countries and take it into account in the preparation of regulatory documents.

At the same time, the main efforts should be focused on the development of a system of regulatory and methodological documents that define the main provisions of the scientific, technical, financial, investment, foreign economic activities of financial and industrial groups, focused primarily on the use of government bodies and business entities.

For enterprises, organizations and institutions, it is necessary to develop methodological materials that reflect practical issues of the creation and functioning of financial and industrial groups, such as regulatory and legislative acts regulating the procedure for the creation and functioning of financial and industrial groups; group project requirements; recommendations for creating a project; the procedure for passing the examination of the project and registering the group.

It is necessary to provide for a number of works at enterprises in order to create conditions that meet the requirements set forth in the legal documents governing the creation and functioning of financial and industrial groups, as well as the requirements of foreign partners and investors, if they are supposed to be involved.

It is necessary to organize the training of personnel of state administration bodies, the training of top and middle managers of enterprises, and the selection of specialists. For this, seminars, consultations, the release of information and methodological materials, the publication of thematic collections, etc. can be used. Education and training of personnel should be the first stage of work at enterprises in the framework of the creation of financial and industrial groups.

It will be necessary to create a comprehensive information and reference system for a financial and industrial group that provides all participants with the necessary information on supply and sales markets, securities and loan capital markets, operational information on the performance of financial and industrial groups, and other data. It is also necessary to create and introduce a register of financial and industrial groups, a database on the main technical and economic parameters of the work of financial and industrial groups. Relatively easy access for business entities to the information necessary for making business decisions will become the basis for a civilized and efficient market.

Analysis of indicators and efficiency of functioning of financial and industrial groups in the Republic of Belarus

The priority direction in the formation of financial and industrial groups in the Republic of Belarus today is the organization of production of microelectronic products, diesel engineering, chemical industry products, complex agricultural equipment.

However, the real situation with financial and industrial groups registered in the Republic of Belarus is more than modest, to some extent offset by the participation of Belarusian business entities in interstate groups registered in Russian Federation. Since 1997, the resolutions of the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus have approved the participation of residents of Belarus in international financial and industrial groups.

Already in 1996, a financial and industrial group under the name "Russian Coal" was registered, with the aim of providing Belarusian business entities with Russian coal. In 1997, the formation of three financial and industrial groups - "Formash", "Granit" and "BelRusAvto" was completed. The next stage is the creation of four more financial and industrial groups - "Belarusian Bus", "Radio Navigation", "Development of Electronic Industries", "Mezhgosmetiz". In 2000, the Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Belarus and the Government of the Russian Federation on the establishment of the interstate financial and industrial group "Defense Systems" was approved. The experience of creating a financial and industrial group predetermined the need to harmonize the regulatory framework in this area.

The first agrarian-financial-industrial group in Belarus - Agrarian Financial-Industrial Company "Zhlobin Meat Processing Plant" was established in the Gomel region. In addition to the meat processing plant, it also included a feed mill and an agricultural enterprise for fattening cattle "Stepskoe". C 1997 "Zhlobin Meat Processing Plant" is an open joint stock company with a share of state ownership of 39.7%.

In 2004 JSC "Zhlobin meat-packing plant" was reorganized by joining JSC "Zhlobin feed mill", agricultural production cooperative "Stepskoy", JSC "Central company of Zhlobin agrarian financial and industrial group".

In December 2004 JSC "Agrarian and financial industrial company "Zhlobin meat-packing plant" was registered, which includes branches: "Compound Feed Plant", "Public Catering", "Trading House".

OJSC "AFPK" Zhlobin Meat Processing Plant" is the head enterprise of the Zhlobin Agrarian Financial and Industrial Company.

The governing body of the company is: the meeting of shareholders, the supervisory board, the directorate and the general director.

Let's look at an examplereorganization of the concern "Belneftekhim"

The first plans date back to 1995. Then the concern prepared a draft concept for reforming the entire oil complex of Belarus. As part of it, the option of creating a Belarusian oil company was discussed. It was assumed that at the initial stage a company with 100% state capital would be created, which would receive controlling stakes in oil production, oil products supply, pipeline transport and significant stakes in oil refining enterprises. The participation of Russian companies as co-owners of the Novopolotsk and Mozyr refineries was also discussed.

To implement the project, the Belarusian Oil Trading House, the Belarusian Oil Insurance Company, Slavneftebank were created, there were projects to create their own financial company and the Pension Fund. Thus, prerequisites were created for the formation of a state holding company on the basis of these joint-stock companies.

However, it was not possible to implement the idea, because a little later a ban was imposed on the corporatization of oil production enterprises, oil products supply, pipeline transport and Naftan.

In 1999, a project for the creation of the State Oil Company appeared. It was proposed to create a vertically integrated state oil company on the basis of the Gomel "bush" of enterprises - the Mozyr Oil Refinery OJSC, the Belorusneft production association, the Druzhba Gomel oil transport enterprise and the oil depots of the Gomel region. Two options for creating such a structure were proposed: in the form of an open joint-stock company and a state-owned company, but A. Lukashenko instructed to keep the company's property in state ownership.

However, after some time, everyone forgot about the creation of the southern "bush".

Later, Belneftekhim proposed the creation of a republican unitary enterprise (RUP) based on the Druzhba Gomel and Novopolotsk oil pipelines, Belorusneft and 38 tank farms. A goal was set - to concentrate financial resources in order to invest in the most promising projects from the point of view of Belneftekhim. But, again, this idea was not implemented.

In 2002, the issue of creating a financial and industrial group on the basis of the Belneftekhim concern was discussed. The protocol of instructions was signed by A. Lukashenko, and the FIG was supposed to start working from January 1, 2003.

Supporters of this project argued the need for its implementation by the fact that without it, in conditions of fierce competition, it will be very difficult for the domestic petrochemical complex to develop. It was assumed that the creation of such a financial and industrial group on the basis of the concern would ensure a closed production cycle and thereby help strengthen economic situation enterprises included in the new structure.

Over the past 2-3 years, approaches to creating an oil company have changed several times.

In 2004, the Belneftekhim concern proposed to include Belorusneft, the Belarusian Oil Trading House, a subsidiary of Belneftekhim, and the country's oil product supply enterprises into the Belarusian Oil Company.

However, the final project looked somewhat different. The Government of Belarus, by a decree dated September 14, 2004, decided to reorganize RUE "PA" Belorusneft "by joining 6 regional oil products supply enterprises, as well as RUE "Orgneftekhim" and "Neftekhimproekt". The new company is entrusted with the functions of supplying oil to Belarus, as well as providing domestic oil products market, including agro-industrial complex enterprises.

It is very important to consider efficiency not only as a result of processing the resources entering the system into the final product (although this actually happens), but also as a process that has many external influences. In Appendix A, effectiveness is shown in terms of a systems approach. It can be seen here that the efficiency is influenced by numerous factors acting both in the external environment and in the process of transformations in the system. Since all these factors influence each other, it can be said that there are no clear, absolute ways to improve efficiency. Many efforts to improve efficiency have failed precisely because managers did not anticipate the possible results of their efforts. The model presented in this section indicates ways to improve efficiency. One of these ways is related to the relationship between quality and efficiency.

Today, long-term planning is vital to sustained efficiency gains, as efficiency is not uncommon for temporary drops for reasons unrelated to the effectiveness of ongoing improvement programs.

The need for a long-term perspective permeates the entire planning process from top to bottom. Long-term long-term strategic plans need to be comprehensively supported by short-term plans, the goals of the organization's departments, and even the rules and regulations adopted by the organization.

Formalized efficiency planning can be traced throughout the management process. It motivates people to work in a way that promotes performance by explaining what the organization is trying to achieve and laying the groundwork for linking rewards to performance. Naturally, plans for the development of efficiency are at the same time the basis for monitoring it.

3 PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GROUPS IN THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

The experience of foreign countries that were in a long economic crisis shows that one of the ways to revive industrial production and the economy as a whole is to develop priority, cost-effective industries. It is necessary to interest financial capital in this. The means of realizing this interest is the integration of financial and industrial capital.

Financial and industrial groups in their essence are, on the one hand, a form of integration of financial and industrial capital, on the other hand, a type of production and investment cooperation in the framework of the implementation of foreign economic relations. For Belarus, with its relatively highly developed industrial potential, the creation of financial and industrial groups with partners from the CIS countries becomes especially attractive. International financial and industrial groups are declaring themselves in the fuel and energy, automobile and tractor construction, television production, and other industries.

The modern economic policy of the Republic of Belarus aims to achieve sustainable development, including through the creation of market economy institutions in the financial sector, where the existing individual capitals are combined to increase the impact on production and circulation. The joint use of capital with different circulations and cyclical turnover makes it possible to ensure the rapid reorientation of resources in order to restore the disturbed balance and stabilize the growth of profitability. The unification of heterogeneous capitals marks the evolution of capital into a more complex form of a new order. When capitals are combined in order to obtain additional opportunities from cooperation in comparison with the total possibilities of individual capitals, then not just a new form of capital is formed, but a more complex system endowed with new specific properties.

World economic practice shows that, first of all, large-scale production forms demand and supply in the market in the modern economy, determines the conditions for pricing, and implements large investment programs. Only large manufacturers can carry out significant scientific research and experimental design developments (R&D), mass introduction of innovations in scientific technological progress into production. It is financial and industrial groups that form the framework of economically developed countries and the world economy as a whole, being an effective form of consolidation of material resources and production capital of different partners. In many ways, the consolidation of production became the basis for the leading positions in the world of the United States and Japan.

Under the conditions of the transitional period, financial and industrial groups are islands of stability, distinguished by greater profitability, predictability, and controllability. Unlike many small firms, which are often created to carry out two or three tax concealment operations, financial and industrial groups, as large economic complexes, are formed for a long time and therefore can be stable taxpayers.

Positive effect from the work of financial and industrial groups for the state is to increase tax revenues to the budget, reduce government spending on job creation and social benefits, increase social stability due to better predictability of pricing policy.

The economic policy of the Belarusian regions should be formulated on the basis of the assertion that isolated economies have exhausted their development potential and their structural restructuring is necessary. Entry into the "market" of international monopolies is possible only through the preliminary development of the domestic market, in which, with the help of the state, their own structures have been formed and are functioning, equivalent in power to foreign ones. Such structures at the regional level should be financial and industrial groups focused on the development of certain territories and the region as a whole.

Despite certain results achieved by financial and industrial groups and the relevant legislator b work, their formation faces serious problems and laborious d nosti.

Among the existing problems of the formation and functioning of financial and industrial groups, the following can be distinguished:

general economic;
legislative;
organizational;
financial.

The difficulties of a general economic nature are obvious. They relate to the difficult financial and economic condition of the majority of e lei, falling investment activity, lack of state d withholding, inflexibility of tax policy.

Many legal issues require an early legislative solution. A clear regulation of the legal nature of financial and industrial groups is needed. Gla in An important role in the formation of financial and industrial groups is assigned to the agreement on its creation, the legal status of which is not clear. Some experts bring this agreement under a simple partnership agreement. Under this agreement, a set of persons undertakes to combine their contributions and act jointly without the formation of a legal entity. about th person for profit and/or other lawful purpose. And in the law on financial and industrial groups, contractual relations are clearly linked to the formation of a new legal entity. and wild person (central company).

The issue of the mechanism for making managerial decisions has not been adequately resolved. e sheniya in financial and industrial groups. The management functions of financial and industrial groups are performed by the Board of Governors and the central company created for the current management of the activities of financial and industrial groups. The way in which each of these bodies makes decisions is different. In sl at tea, if the central company is created in the form of a joint stock company and therefore subject to the law "On Joint Stock Companies", decisions are made by the General Meeting of Shareholders of the central company a research institutes. In the Board of Governors, decisions are made on the principle: one member of the Board - one vote, at the General Meeting of the central company- votes a Nie goes blocks of ordinary shares.

As for the legal framework for state support, the set of Art. and mules of the creation and activities of financial and industrial groups is presented so far mainly on paper (primarily in the article 15 the Law on Financial and Industrial Groups) and has little to do with the existing t key features of the mechanism for managing a unified corporate I am pregnant.

Organizational problems are caused, first of all, by e the development of organizational structures for the management of financial and industrial groups; lack of regulatory powers of the central company; high d about Lei costs associated with the internal turnover of the group.

Among the financial difficulties of the functioning of financial and industrial groups, one should first of all name the low potential of commercial banks, n owned by their own capital, which does not give them the opportunity to invest about invest significant sums in the industry. Even if economic and political situations are favorable for the development of this process, Belarusian banks will not be able to meet the investment needs of d more than 10%. Hence the need to attract foreign investment, which cannot be done without state guarantees.

For successful development created and the emergence of new jobs b of financial and industrial groups, joint efforts of the legislative and executing b noah authorities, interested scientific centers and specialists of corporations to solve the above problems.

CONCLUSION

In this course work, the main aspects of finance were outlined. n co-industrial groups, the basic concept of a financial-industrial group is given in accordance with the legislation of the Republic of Belarus, the norms a the legal framework and the role of financial and industrial groups in the formation of a market economy, the types and principles of functioning of financial and industrial groups are also considered, the world experience of the activities of financial and industrial groups is studied.

Based on the above material, we can conclude that financial and industrial groups are a rapidly developing form of interaction between financial and industrial structures, allowing Yu allowing financial institutions to most effectively not only allocate their resources, but also to some extent manage their use of loans m box. On the other hand, industrial structures receive a reliable and permanent counterparty that provides flexible and comprehensive finance. n sirovanie and financial service of his needs.

Today, the role of financial and industrial groups is especially noticeable in the context of a recession in economic development, when it is necessary to mobilize resources, concentrate them and effectively redistribute them to key areas of science, technology and production.

The emergence of financial and industrial groups in the Belarusian economy is caused by a number of reasons:

First, whatever the nature of the changes in the Belarusian economy during the reform, these changes inevitably carry certain elements of the former economic system, one of the most important features of which was the predominance of powerful industrial enterprises and research and production associations.

Secondly, the weakness of the modern Belarusian banking system, the financial insufficiency of most industrial enterprises, the absence of large trade structures inevitably push them towards each other in order to jointly survive within the framework of financial and industrial groups.

Thirdly, as the history of the world market economy shows, there are types of industrial structures that differ in terms of the scale of operations and organizational and managerial characteristics, and despite the importance of small and medium-sized businesses, the role of a kind of backbone of industry in most modern developed market economies is still it is large corporations that play as the most efficient and stable.

Financial and industrial groups are able to solve existing problems and contribute to the rise and subsequent development of domestic production and will help:

concentrate financial resources on priority areas of economic development;
provide financial resources for industry, R&D;
speed up scientific and technical progress;
increase the export potential and competitiveness of products of domestic enterprises;
to form rational economic ties in today's conditions.

Belarusian legislation has already quite clearly defined the mechanism and rules for the functioning of financial and industrial groups. The only major drawback of this regulatory area is the prohibition for banks to participate in about more than one financial-industrial group. This issue is debatable, but most economists do not see anything bad in the bank's participation in several financial and industrial groups.

Consolidation of production complexes, an increasing need and The possibility of using economies of scale forces the consolidation about vat production and financial resources in the hands of a single organization. But we must not forget the bitter experience of international financial and industrial groups, which have been in s forced to abandon further forced expansion and centralization a tions. They had to deal with restructuring as a general organizational structure. to tours, and pay more attention to financial and marketing a With management pects. Many mega-corporations are now following the general trend n tion, giving subsidiaries greater freedom of activity, giving them separate budgets, etc.

Summing up, the following should be emphasized: the creation of financial and industrial groups in our country is a natural phenomenon caused by the need to concentrate and integrate financial and industrial capital. It should become one of the strategic elements of state policy, and in the future, financial and industrial groups are seen as powerful multi-profile interregional associations.

Today, integration processes in the economy are the foundation on which the entire structural basis of the world economy is formed. At the heart of large-scale integration processes lies both the activity of transnational corporations, expanding the boundaries of their activities and creating a single economic space, and the unification of smaller economic forms. The world economic system is developing on the basis of an optimal combination of small, medium and large enterprises, each of which has its own niche and plays a certain role in the economy. In countries such as the USA, Japan, Korea, Sweden, Italy, Germany, Holland, thousands of small and medium-sized enterprises are combined into integrated production complexes. Such integration gives a huge economic and social effect.

LIST OF USED SOURCES

Law of the Republic of Belarus dated 04.06.1999 No. 265-Z "On financial and industrial groups"
World economy. Textbook / M., BEK Publishing House, 2000.
International economic relations. Integration: Tutorial for universities / Yu.A. Shcherbanin, K.L. Rozhkov, V.E. Rybalkin, G. Fisher.-M.: Banks and Exchanges, UNITI, 1997.
Bazylev N.I., Gurko S.P., Leshchilovskiy P.V., Fundamentals of Economic Theory and Practice. Minsk: BSEU, 1996.
Myasnikovich M.V., FIG as a factor in the development of economic integration, Belarusian Economic Journal. 1998, No. 2.
Rudashevsky V.D. FIG: opportunities and limitations. State and law. -1998, No. 2.
Rozhkov M., Balabaeva N., "International financial and industrial groups in the CIS: problems of creation." Financial newspaper. Regional release. No. 32, 1996
T. Gurova. “Financial and industrial groups: state of the art and perspectives. "Expert" No. 13 dated April 6, 1998.
Onda Hisao Financial and industrial groups: long-term business relationships.// Marketing. 1997. No. 2. P.3.;
Balabanova N.V. International financial and industrial groups: problems and prospects // Problems of forecasting, 2004, no. 3.
Belyaeva I.Yu., Capital of financial and industrial corporate structures: theory and practice. - M.: Financial Academy, 2006.
Volkov F.M., Kozlova M.I. FIG in a market economy. - M., 2004.
Dvoretskaya A.E., Nikolsky Yu.B. Financial and industrial groups: management + finance. - M.: "PRINTLIGHT", 2007.
Utkin E.A., Eskindarov M.A. Financial and industrial groups. - M.: EKMOS, 2007.
THEM. Abramov, I.A. Mikhailova-Stanyuta, O.S. Bulko, E.V. Vasina, A.P. Urban. "Financial and industrial groups in Belarus (perspectives and methods of formation)". Minsk., 2007.
Rozhkov M., Baltabaeva N., International financial and industrial groups in the CIS: problems of creation. // Financial newspaper. Regional release. No. 32, 1996
Vabishchevich, S. S. Financial and industrial groups: Probl. Theories and legislation: Monograph / S. S. Vabishchevich. - Mn. : Youth., 2003. - 136 p.
Torkanovskiy E., Financial and industrial groups: prospects and problems // Economy and law. 1996. No. 4
Starodubskaya I. Financial and industrial groups: illusions and reality // 1995, No. 5
Orekhov S.A. Management of financial and industrial groups (course of lectures). M.: MESI, 1998.
Movsesyan A.G. Methodological bases for ensuring the sustainability of financial and industrial groups. M., 1997.
Makarova G.L. FPG organization. M., 1998.
Vinslav Yu.B., Guskov E. Factors and ways to improve the efficiency of domestic financial and industrial groups // Russian Economic Journal. 1996. No. 7
Zaitsev N.L. Economics of an industrial enterprise. Textbook M.: Infra-M, 1997.
Mokiy M.S., Skamay L.G., Trubochkina M.I. Enterprise Economics: Textbook / Ed. prof. M.G. Lapusty. M.: INFRA-M, 2000.

APPENDIX A

Factors affecting efficiency

Resources	Connection	The results are positive
materials Work Capital Energy Information	Making decisions Management Planning Organization Motivation Control	Quality goods and services Profit and Cost Management Employment
			Results are negative
			Defects Financial losses Unemployment Social Consequences

APPENDIX B

Characteristics of the types of international FIGs

Characteristic features	International corporations	multinational corporations	Global corporations
1. Type of relationship between the parent company and foreign affiliates	ethnocentric	polycentric or regiocentric	Geocentric
2. Orientation	Absolute growth parent company, foreign affiliates are created, as a rule, only to ensure supply or sales.	Consolidation of companies from a number of countries on a production or scientific and technical basis. Greater degree of independence in conducting operations in each of the countries. Branches are large and carry out a variety of activities, incl. and production.	Integration together activities carried out in different countries. For example, parts of the same product may be produced in different countries. The parent company considers itself not as a center, but as one of the constituent parts of the corporation.
3. Attitude to foreign market	Foreign markets are considered only as an extension of the parent company's home market.	Foreign markets are often viewed as a more important sector of FIG activity compared to the domestic market.	The arena of activity is the whole world.
4. The level of centralization of managerial decision-making	High centralization of managerial decision-making at the level of the parent company.	Decentralization of individual management functions. Delegation of powers to subsidiaries. Management decisions are made on the basis of close coordination between the parent company and branches.	High decentralization of decision-making with close coordination between the parent company and branches
5. Control over the activities of foreign affiliates	Strong control by the parent company.	Branches are usually autonomous.	Branches are usually autonomous
6. Personnel policy	Preference is given to compatriots in foreign branches. The employees of the FIG home country are assigned to all possible posts abroad.	Foreign affiliates are dominated by local managers. Local cadres of the host country are appointed to key positions.	The best workers from all countries are appointed to any posts.
7. Organizational structure	The complex organizational structure of the parent company is simple for foreign affiliates.	Organizational structure with a high level of independence of branches.	A very complex organizational structure with autonomous branches.
8. Information flows	A large volume of orders and instructions to the branches.	Little flow of information to and from the parent company, little flow between branches.	Significant information flows to and from the parent company and between all affiliates.

APPENDIX B

Classification of types of FIGs

Classification sign	Types of FIGs
Target nature of the formation	Manufacturing development R&D implementation Business diversification Regional expansion Fulfillment of the state order
Origin of capital	Former line ministries Industrial capital bank capital Insurance capital
Source of funding for the organizational project of the FIG	Own financial resources Borrowed financial resources
Type of ownership	Private State mixed
Registration status	Official FIGs Informal FIGs

PAGE\*MERGEFORMAT1

MANAGING THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTEGRATED ECONOMIC

Alekhin S.V.

FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GROUPS IN THE RUSSIAN ECONOMY:

CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES

FINANCIAL-INDUSTRIAL GROUPS IN RUSSIAN ECONOMY: CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES

Key words: economic integration, financial and industrial groups, classification of financial and industrial groups.

Keywords: economic integration, financial-industrial groups, the classification of financial-industrial groups.

Abstract: the article defines the characteristic features of a financial and industrial group as a type of integrated association, the formation of which is due to a number of advantages both for banks participating in FIGs and for industrial enterprises. A systematic classification of financial and industrial groups operating in Russia is presented, and a comparison is made with the types of FIGs in foreign countries.

Abstract:the paper defines the characteristics of financial-industrial groups as a form of integrated associations, the formation of which is due to a number of advantages for participating banks FPG and industrial companies. Presented a classification system of financial-industrial groups operating in Russia, and the comparison with the views of FPG in foreign countries.

The purpose of the activity of any business entity is the accumulation of capital, both on the scale of the enterprise itself and on the scale of the national economy. Having certain financial resources, the enterprise seeks to increase their volume, applying the principles of self-financing and self-sufficiency. However, in the face of growing competition and growth in the scale of production, it is far from always possible for enterprises to achieve capitalization goals on their own, without the help of additional sources of financing, which leads to the need to develop new ways of capital growth.

Among the effective ways of development, the strategy of economic integration deserves special attention, which is described in the literature as combining the financial resources of several business entities into a single whole:

This is the association of economic entities, the deepening of their interaction, the development

the development of ties between them, which is manifested in the expansion and deepening of production and technological ties, the sharing of resources, the pooling of capital, the creation of favorable conditions for each other to carry out economic activities, the removal of mutual barriers1;

This is the merging of reproduction processes, scientific cooperation, the formation of close economic, financial, scientific, industrial and trade ties2;

It is a process of developing deep and enduring relationships, resulting in

1Adamova, K.Z. Quasi-integrated structures in the new economy: diss .... candidate of economic sciences: 08.00.01 / Adamova K.Z. - Saratov: GOU VPO "Saratov State Socio-Economic University", 2011.-P.8

2Vasiliev, V.N. Organization of production in market conditions: Textbook for students of engineering specialties of universities. - M.: Mashinostroenie, 1993. - S. 103.

there is a merging of the processes of reproduction, capital, scientific cooperation, the formation of close economic, scientific, industrial and trade ties1.

Currently, the following schemes for the integration of business entities can be distinguished:

1. Enterprise (non-financial sector) + enterprise (non-financial sector).

With this form of integration, all available resources of the enterprise are combined: technologies, industries, personnel, finance, etc.

2. Enterprise (non-financial sector) + financial institution.

Consolidation of financial resources is carried out. Such associations are formed when enterprises, carrying out large-scale production activities, experience a serious need for significant amounts of financial assistance, which can be satisfied by introducing financial organizations into an integrated association, as a result of which the merged enterprise gets access to additional financial resources and opportunities.

3. Financial organization + financial organization (can be expressed in the scheme "bank + bank" or "bank + insurance organization").

The integration of banking capital is one of the ways to ensure the stability of banks, it allows you to use the opportunities to expand your market niche, diversify your activities, and increase the volume and quality of services provided.

One of the most complex forms of integration is the unification of banking and industrial capital, since their forms have a different nature of origin. In an integrated association, these capitals, different in nature, pass from one form to another (from monetary to productive and vice versa), which gives the effect of their use much higher than the sum of the results of their individual

1 Big Encyclopedic Dictionary: in 2 volumes / Ch.ed. A.M. Prokhorov.- M.: Sov. encyclopedia, 1991. - T.1.-863 p.

functioning (Figure 1). Such integrated associations in world practice are called financial and industrial

groups.

Exploring the concept of a financial-industrial group, we note that in numerous works there are two approaches of scientists to this term. Some authors consider FIG as a process of combining industrial and financial forms of capital on various conditions. In particular, the following definitions can be found: “...industrial capital, having combined with banking capital, forms such an entity as financial and industrial groups

(FIG)"3; “FIG is a combination of banking and

industrial capital"; “integration of banking and industrial capital”5; "fusion of financial capital with industrial capital"6. Another approach is that the authors define FIGs as a set of enterprises in the financial and non-financial sectors of the economy, which, after merging, carry out joint activities:

- “The financial-industrial group often includes. banks and financial companies. With their help, financial services are provided to the business within the group. Within the group...economic and financial interdependence is being formed”7;

2 In Russia, the activities of financial and industrial groups were regulated by the Federal Law of November 30, 1995 No. No. 190-FZ "On Financial and Industrial Groups", but it became invalid on 06/22/2007. Recognition of the law as invalid did not lead to the liquidation of the existing financial-industrial groups in Russia, whose activities are currently regulated by the provisions of the Civil Code and other legislative acts.

3Financial and industrial groups: overseas experience and the realities of Russia / Ed. A.G. Movsesyan, B.M. Smitienko. - M., 1996. - S. 8.

4Kalin, A., Kulikov, V. How to accelerate the development of Russian financial and industrial groups [Text] / A. Kalin, V. Kulikov // Russian Economic Journal. - 1995. - No. 8. - S. 20.

5 Makarevich, L.I. Problems of creating financial and industrial groups in Russia [Text] / L.I. Makarevich // Banking. - 1995. - No. 12. - S. 20.

6 Bolotin, V.V. Financial and industrial groups: opportunities, reality and rule-making [Text] / V.V. Bolotin // Finance. - 1995. - No. 7. - p. 8.

7 Economy in transition / Ed. V.V. Radaeva, A.V. Buzgalin. - M., 1995. - S. 361-362.

- “.financial and industrial groups, covering industrial enterprises, research organizations, trading firms, banks, insurance companies, pension and investment funds - a kind of framework for the economy of the leading industrial countries of the world economy as a whole”1;

- “corporations that unite cre-

- “... represents a form of integration of independent legal entities, including production, trade enterprises and financial institutions that have pooled their resources ... in order to ensure the most efficient production, economic, financial and other activities”3;

- “... production and economic

Figure 1 - Scheme of integration of financial and industrial capital

financial institutions and industrial relations of large industrial and technical enterprises that have received the status of complexes with credit and financial FIGs”2;

1 Lvov, D.S., Dementiev, V.E. Financial and industrial groups in the Russian economy [Text] / D.S. Lvov, V.E. Dementiev. - M., 1994. - S. 19.

2Vinslav, Yu., Savchenko, V. The Russian State

Military Entrepreneurship: Corporate Hypostasis

[Text] / Y. Vinslav, V. Savchenko // Russian Economic Journal. - 1997. - No. 2. - S. 31.

3 Minina, T.I. The role of banks in the formation and development of financial and industrial groups in Russia: a dissertation for the degree of Ph.D. in Economics. - M., 2001. - P. 38.

institutions, characterized by many ... forms of existence.”1

Russian legislation defined a financial and industrial group as “a set of legal entities acting as a parent company and subsidiaries, or who have fully or partially combined their tangible and intangible assets (participation system) on the basis of an agreement on the creation of FIGs for the purpose of technological and economic integration for the implementation of investment and other projects and programs aimed at increasing competitiveness and expanding markets for goods and services, increasing production efficiency, and creating new jobs”2.

Since the definition presented above assumes that FIGs can be created only if there are goals for the implementation of an investment project or program, but does not contain such tasks as establishing long-term partnerships, establishing mutually beneficial cooperation, ensuring the fulfillment of mutual obligations, concentrating efforts to defend common interests and etc., this explains the fact that the Federal Law of the Russian Federation on Financial and Industrial Groups was abolished.

Summarizing the above definitions, we can indicate the following characteristic features of a financial and industrial group as an integrated association:

a) it is an association of independent economic entities with their own financial resources, technologies, labor resources etc.;

1Radionova, L.N., Shushakova, A.G., Zainullin, V.K. Formation of financial and industrial groups and problems of capital assessment [Text] / L.N. Radionova, A.G. Shushakova, V.K. Zainullin//Oil and gas business.-2004.-volume 2.

2 Law of the Russian Federation dated 30.11. 1995 No. 190-FZ "On financial and industrial groups",

Art. 2, (lost force).

b) this integrated association does not have independence as entity;

c) economic entities of any organizational and legal form can unite;

d) various forms of capital are combined: banking, industrial, insurance, trade and intermediary, etc.;

e) a merger is carried out, both on the basis of the presence of control of one company over another (holding formation), and on the contractual terms of a partial merger;

f) obligatory presence in the association of banks or other financial organizations;

g) the presence of financial interdependence between the participants of the financial and industrial group.

Participation in the financial and industrial group of business entities of various financial and non-financial sectors of the economy has its own advantages for each of them, which are the motives for their integration.

So, for example, the following advantages of merging into FIGs for industrial companies can be distinguished:

Obtaining guarantees from a participating bank and using its image to enter the capacious markets of other countries3;

Obtaining long-term financial resources from "own" financial structures;

Receipt of foreign investments under the guarantee of the banks included in the group;

Use of the mechanism of transfer prices, allowing to reduce the cost of products;

Use of financial consulting services from banking specialists on risk management, stress testing, financial stability;

The use of underwriting services in the issuance and sale of securities by enterprises participating in FIGs;

Using the services of a member bank for the formation of a banking syndicate

3 Stepanova, V.S. Formation of project financing by commercial banks: Ph.D. dis. for the competition academic step. cand. economy Sciences / scientific hands Yu.V. Rozhkov. - Khabarovsk, 2004. - 199 p.

to organize the process of syndicated lending;

Transfer to trust management of banks of financial assets belonging to industrial enterprises.

Financial institutions, joining FIGs, do so due to the following circumstances that determine their desire to cooperate with enterprises:

Reducing the level of credit risk when placing funds to borrowing enterprises (FIG participants);

Improvement of settlements and reduction of mutual debt between the participants of FIGs;

Expansion of credit and investment opportunities;

Strengthening competitiveness in the context of the expansion of foreign banks;

Obtaining additional income from the provision of consulting services to participating enterprises.

Important for the study of the essence of financial and industrial groups is a comprehensive classification of their types, which depends on the composition of the participants and the order of connections in their interaction. The need for classification arises from the fact that today's FIGs are heterogeneous in their content, so their grouping will make it possible to identify common characteristics for certain groups.

The most general is the classification of FIGs proposed by the authors V. Kotilko and O. Orlova1, who distinguish different types of FIGs on a regional basis:

Regional FIGs, whose actions are limited to the territory of the region, industrial region or republic;

Inter-regional financial-industrial groups, which are sometimes called nationwide, go beyond the boundaries of one region. Most often, the scale of action of such groups is determined by the broad organization of the industrial nucleus of FIGs;

Transnational FIGs can become a tool for embedding the Russian

: Kotilko, V., Orlova, O. Strategy for the development of corporate structures in Russia [Electronic resource]. Access mode //

http://www.rau.su/observer/N08_00/08_16.HTM.

economy into world economic relations, they are mainly focused on the CIS countries.

This classification does not make it possible to determine the specifics of FIG activity and its management model, since the leader of the financial and industrial group is not indicated, that is, the company that organizes the FIG, determines the development direction of the FIG, and has the functions of controlling its activities, is not defined.

On this basis, financial and industrial groups can be classified into:

Banking groups (where the central role belongs to banks);

Industrial groups where the group leader is a large industrial company.

Industrial financial-industrial groups are groups where the center is industrial enterprises. Industrial financial-industrial groups have a pronounced industry focus, determined by the industry in which the enterprise or group of enterprises operates, which play a key role in the activities of an integrated association. The center of industrial financial-industrial groups can be: an enterprise or a group of enterprises; research institute, design bureau (including production base).

Banking FIGs are formed when banks establish control over enterprises and perform the functions of financing, consulting, and settlements between members of a financial and industrial group.

For example, Table 1 shows Russian banks included in one of the financial and industrial groups at the beginning of 2012.

The entry of banks into integrated structures can be studied using data from the Bank of Russia on the participation of domestic banks in the capital of other organizations.

2 Features of the formation and development prospects of the main types of financial and industrial groups of the Russian Federation // Industrial policy in the Russian Federation. - 2002. - No. 3.

Table 1 - Participation of banks in the largest financial and industrial groups

Bank Group to which the bank belongs Industrial enterprises of the group

Alfa-Bank Alfa-Group GoldenTelecom, Vimpelcom, Perekrestok, TNK-BP

Gazprombank Gazprom Gazprom

Rosbank, UWC Interros Norilsk Nickel

Petrocommerce LUKOIL LUKOIL

Surgutneftegazbank Surgutneftegaz Surgutneftegaz

Russian Regional Development Bank Rosneft Rosneft

TransCreditBank (part of VTB Group) Russian Railways (RZD) State railway monopoly

BIN-Bank RussNeft RussNeft, real estate, trading companies

Moscow Bank for Reconstruction and Development AFK-Sistema Telecommunication companies, Detsky Mir, Intourist

Zenith Bank, Devon-Credit Bank Tatneft Tatneft

Thus, statistical data show that in recent years the size of the participation of Russian credit

organizations in subsidiaries and affiliated joint-stock companies, which is clearly demonstrated by the following diagram (Figure 2).

700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

According to the Bank of Russia

Figure 2- Dynamics of participation of credit institutions in the capital of subsidiaries and affiliates

joint-stock companies (billion rubles)

Analysis of the data presented in the diagram allows us to conclude that by the beginning of 2014. banks are increasingly investing their capital in the activities of companies in other sectors of the national economy. The highest growth rates of placement

In the period of 01.01.2012-01.01.2013 - 49.6%, when the volume of banking resources in the capital of other companies increased from 387.3 billion rubles. as of 01.01.2012 up to 579.4 billion rubles. as of 01.01.2013 In general, for the analyzed pe-

During the period, the volume of participation of banking capital in the capital of subsidiaries and affiliated joint-stock companies increased from 17.3 billion rubles. up to 599.1 billion rubles or 3363%. Attention is drawn to the fact that during the period of post-crisis recovery of the Russian banking sector (2009-2010), the volume of participation in the capital of other enterprises was not reduced, so if the volume of loans granted during this period decreased from 16526.9 billion rubles. to 16,115.5 billion rubles (or by 2.5%), the banks' capital investments in subsidiaries and affiliated joint-stock companies increased from 211.9 billion rubles. up to 284.5 billion rubles. (or by 34.3%).

Banks, being members of financial and industrial groups, can perform a range of different functions, which makes it possible to classify FIGs according to the role of commercial banks in them.

T.I. Minina distinguishes the following groups of banking FIGs based on the position of the bank as an internal financial institution of FIGs:

1. The first is that the bank performs the functions of a “personal banker”, where its role can be characterized as subordinate (or serving). The bank is only useful in managing the cash flow and liquidity of FPG member enterprises. But it can play an insignificant role in financing the activities of participating enterprises. Such a bank is often small, therefore, its role in issuing guarantees, searching for foreign investors, marketing and information services is extremely small. Financial-industrial groups with such positions of the bank, as a rule, are distinguished by weak management, which turns into a gradual “eating up” of banks and a sharp reduction in their own financial resources.

2. The second position is that banks fulfill the role of the financial center of the group, therefore, it is entrusted with the functions of financial management of all participants in the financial and industrial group. As a rule, this bank is the initiator of the creation of such a financial and industrial group. Practice shows that the greatest economic and financial

the effect for the entire FIG is achieved when the bank has the leading role in the group.

V.A. Tsvetkov presents a more detailed classification of banking FIGs.

The author refers to the first type of financial and industrial groups financial and industrial groups, where a bank (or a group of banks) dominates, and other non-banking institutions play a subordinate role. This group may also include other financial associations, the purpose of which is to meet the specific needs of both the bank itself and non-financial organizations included in the FIG.

The second type of banking groups includes a large bank and non-banking financial institutions that provide a full package of services to other members of the group.

The third group includes financial conglomerates and other non-financial organizations. In these groups, the shares of banks in terms of assets and capital turn out to be approximately equal to the corresponding share of non-financial organizations. Banking associations included in this group operate on the principle of a financial supermarket. The list of services that they can offer to clients is very wide - from standard bank deposits to trust management and pension insurance.

The fourth group consists of financial associations without a large bank. An insurance company, pension fund, stock companies can act as financial organizations.

1. The bank is an agency bank in relation to members of FIGs, i.e. carries out current control over the direction of financial flows of FIG participants.

2. Cross ownership of shares. The Bank participates in the authorized capital of FIG members.

3. The Bank maintains the current liquidity of FIG participants by regrouping liquid funds by issuing short-term loans.

4. Financing focused on control, i.e. "management through intervention". Unlike the previous principle

The central bank intervenes directly in the decision-making process at the enterprise.

Banks perform a service role, but they have full information about other participants in FIGs, they are guarantors of transactions of industrial companies participating in FIGs;

Banks are the controlling center that regulates and manages all FPG participants, but at the same time performs the functions of servicing the cash flows of FPG participants;

Banks do not own shares of FIG participants, but carry out control-oriented financing;

Banks do not exercise control over the activities of participants, do not have sufficient capital to carry out large credit operations and issue guarantees; are the clearing house for participating enterprises.

Financial and industrial groups, regardless of the functions performed by banks, can also be classified according to the level of control, which, according to the conditions of integration, is formed between the “core” of FIGs and participants. On this basis, FIGs can be formed both in "soft" (consortium, association, union) and "hard" (holding type) variants of the organizational structure. The choice of the type of organizational structure of FIGs is determined by the property relations in the group, capital relations between its participants, the totality of contractual and informal mutual obligations, the goals of creation and directions of development1.

As a result of the study, we have determined that financial and industrial groups can be classified according to the following criteria: the leader of the financial and industrial group; functions

bank in the financial and industrial group; the level of control between the participants in FIGs (Table 2).

Examining the foreign experience in the formation of financial and industrial groups, we can say that in the countries the classification of FIGs is similar to the Russian one. So, for example, financial and industrial groups that exist in the United States can be divided into two types: the first type includes FIGs, where banks retain control over the activities of participants. Among the most well-known banking associations with a set of controlled enterprises, we single out the Chase, Morgan, Mellon, Leaman-Goldman, etc. groups. The second group is dominated by industrial enterprises (General Motors, General Electric, "FordMotors", "AT & T"), but financial structures also occupy significant positions in them ("GeneralMotors-AcceptanceCorp.", "GeneralElectricCapital-Services", "FordMotor-CreditCorp.", "IBM CreditCorp.", etc.) .

Currently, the three leading financial-industrial groups in Germany are headed by the largest national banks: Deutsche Bank (DeutscheBank AG), Dresdner Bank (DresdnerBank AG) and Commerz Bank (Commerzbank AG), which are the center of financial and industrial groups and represent a wide range of services: consulting services for market analysis and forecasting, information on technical solutions and innovations, financial planning consulting, banking insurance services.

In France, the most widespread financial and industrial associations created around the largest industrial complexes. The most famous of them are the groups: "Elf-Akiten" (ELF Aquitane), "Company francesde petrol" (petrochemical industry); "Company

general electric” (electronics and electrical engineering), etc.

1 Gorzhankina, S.V. Financial and industrial groups in Russia (analytical review) [Text] / S.V. Gorzhankina // Management in Russia and abroad. - 1998. - No. 6. - S. 23-28.

Table 2 - Classification of types of financial and industrial groups

Sign of comparison Types of PPG

Industrial FIGs

The core of the group is industrial enterprises An enterprise (group of enterprises) of a general civil profile

Enterprise (group of enterprises) of the industrial complex

Enterprise (group of enterprises) of the agro-industrial complex

Research and development enterprise (group of enterprises)

Banking FIGs

Group leader - bank (and/or non-bank organization) Dominant bank

Dominant bank + non-bank financial institutions

Group of large banks-financial supermarkets

Group of non-banking financial institutions

By bank functions Passive role - secondary role of the bank

Active role - bank group leader

By control level "Soft" FIGs

"Hard" PPGs

The banking institutions that are part of these groups, as a rule, are controlled by the main industrial enterprises of the group. Along with industrial groups, trading financial and industrial groups have also become widespread in France, at the origins of which were large trading companies (Kora, Intermarche, Auchan ), and subsequently controlled a number of banks (Bank Accord, Bank Chabrière), extending their influence to some sectors of the French economy.

characteristic feature

financial and industrial groups in Sweden is the predominance of industrial associations associated with the families of large Swedish businessmen and financiers.

In the Italian economy, banking financial and industrial groups are most widespread. Among the largest Italian banks that played a decisive role in the formation of financial and industrial groups in Italy, one can name the Italian Credit, the Roman Bank, and the Commercial Bank.

Wide use

Chapter 4. Enterprise as a production and economic system

§ 1. Elements of the theory of complex systems

Production and economic system(PES) refers to complex systems. The main type of production and economic systems is the enterprise. Let us present, in relation to an industrial enterprise, some necessary information from the theory of complex systems.

Under the system in the broadest sense of the word, it is customary to understand a closed objective unity of elements connected with each other, ordered according to a certain law or principle (Fig. 4.1).

The basis for ordering the system is, as a rule, the purpose of its functioning. Systems theory deals with one of the sections of cybernetics - systemology, or systems engineering. The latter name is used in cases where the technical aspects associated with the design of systems come to the fore. The concept of a system is opposed to unsystematic, or chaos.

Rice. 4.1

From a mathematical point of view, a system is a set on which a predetermined relation is realized R with fixed properties R. As such a relation, there are usually requirements of a certain order, connections between the elements of the system: events occurring in one of the elements of the system affect events in other elements in a certain way.

Any system is located and operates in some well-defined external environment. System interaction with external environment carried out through the input and output of the system. In this case, the input is understood as a point or area of influence on the system from the outside; under the exit - a point or area of influence of the system outside.

The system can be in different states. The state of any system at a certain moment t can be characterized with a certain accuracy by the set of values of the internal parameters of the state m:

m = m 1 , m 2 , ... , m* .

To describe system states the state-space method or, in other terminology, the phase-space method is very convenient. The state parameters in this case are called the phase coordinates of the system.

The state of the system can be represented by a point in multidimensional space, where the values of the corresponding phase coordinates are plotted along the coordinate axes. If the state of the system changes in time, then the reflecting point moves in the multidimensional phase space along a certain curve, which is called the phase trajectory of the system. Thus, the description of the behavior of a system, which is often quite complex, can be replaced by a description of the behavior of a point in the phase space.

In real systems, coordinates, as a rule, can take values lying in certain intervals:

mimin ax ,i=1,2,...,i * .

As a result, any system is characterized by a certain range of values of phase coordinates, within which one can speak of the system as a single whole. Such a region is called the region of existence of the system, or the region of possible trajectories. For the two-dimensional case, the situation is shown in Fig. 4.2.

Realm of existence

Phase trajectory

m(t)

m(t 0 )

Rice. 4.2.

If the coordinates of the system can take any values within the domain of existence, then the systems are called continuous. If the phase coordinates can take only a finite number of fixed values, then the systems are called discrete.

Thus, the system is characterized by three groups of variables:

Input generated by systems external to the one under study:

x= x 1 , x 2 , ..., x* ;

The output integrated by the system under study, which determine the impact of the system on the environment:

y= y 1 , y 2 , ..., y* ;

State coordinates characterizing the dynamic behavior of the system under study:

m= m 1 , m 2 , ..., m* .

All three groups of quantities are assumed to be functions of time:

x(t); y(t); m(t). (4.1)

Rice. 4.3

At any moment in time t the state of the system is a function of the initial state m(t 0) and changes in the input vector x(t) in the interval from t 0 to t:

y( t) =< p [ m(t 0), x(t 0 , t)].

Equations (2) and (3) are called the equations of state of the system.

For systems described by differential equations, the equations of state have the form

dm dt t --F d y dt t --,[ m ( t ) ,x ( t )]

The derivation of the equations of state of the system is the initial, but very important step in the analysis and synthesis of systems in modern control theory. Influencing the inputs of the system, we transfer it from one state to another and thereby obtain changes in the outputs, which fixes the new state of the system.

The transfer of a system from one state to another is accompanied by the costs of matter, energy, and time. Control is called optimal, if the transfer of the system from one state to another, corresponding to the achievement of the goal, will be accompanied by a minimum expenditure of matter, energy or time.

To control real processes, it is necessary to create control systems in which information circulates in a very complex way, within the set of circuits that determine the structure of this system (Fig. 4.3).

The whole variety of connections between circuits in the system can be reduced to two main types: a connection that establishes the mutual subordination of circuits and the transfer of information between senior and junior circuits, and a connection that determines the transfer of information between circuits that are on the same level. For the convenience of considering these connections in the diagrams, we will call them, respectively, the “vertical” connection (Fig. 4.4, a) and the “horizontal” connection (Fig. 4.4, b).

An example of a “vertical” relationship can be a relationship between the “manager-accountant” circuit and the “manager-shop manager” circuit. An example of a “horizontal” connection is the connection between the contour “the planning department of the enterprise - the planning bureau of the workshop” and the contour “the department of the chief technologist of the enterprise - the technological bureau of the workshop”.

The path of information flow in the control system is mainly determined by the organization of the system and the task that the system is solving at the moment. Sometimes this path passes through several contours, covering each of them in whole or in part.

Therefore, when studying the solution of specific control problems, the sequence of information passing through the elements of the circuits included in the system, and taking into account the corresponding transformations to which information is subjected, becomes important.

Second level control object

Rice. 4.4

The path of information passage in the control system when solving a specific problem, including elements of one or more circuits, is called the chain of passage (circulation) of information in the system.

In this way, under control system one can also understand an interconnected set of control loops organized for purposeful control of a complex system.

The inputs of the system receive certain values of the input parameters, by changing the values of which it is possible to change the current state of the system. It can be traced by observing the state of the output parameters at the outputs of the system. So, if we take an enterprise as an example of a system, then the inputs can be the staffing and training of personnel, the composition and quality of equipment, raw materials, fuel, and the salary fund. The outputs of the system, characterizing the current state of the enterprise, will be the quantity and quality of products, the costs of monetary and material values, etc.

Depending on the degree of mutual influence of the system and the external environment, the systems are divided into open and closed(closed). In open systems, internal processes significantly depend on environmental conditions and themselves have a significant impact on its elements. In this regard, the functioning of such systems is determined by both external and internal information.

In closed (closed) systems, internal processes are weakly connected with the external environment. As a result, the functioning of closed systems is determined mainly by internal information, i.e., that which is produced within the system itself. The closure of the system means a strict limitation of its composition and scope of activity by certain limits, allowing to take into account the change in states. If the system is not closed, its state cannot be strictly taken into account.

Depending on the nature of the connection between the elements of the system and the events occurring in it, there are deterministic and probabilistic(stochastic) systems. In a deterministic system, the connections between elements and events are unambiguous, predetermined.

In a probabilistic (stochastic) system, in contrast to a deterministic one, the connections between elements and events are ambiguous: the same changes in the elements of the system in each individual case can lead to different events. However, there is no place for chaos here either - connections between elements and events exist in the form of probabilistic patterns. For example, a change in production technology leads to a certain change in the total number of defective products, but it is impossible to unequivocally determine in advance whether this part will be defective or not.

In practice, strictly deterministic systems do not exist. Therefore, it is more correct to define deterministic systems as a special case of probabilistic ones, in which the probability of an expected event is close to one.

A modern manufacturing enterprise belongs to complex dynamic systems. A complex system, in contrast to a simple one, is understood as a system that cannot be considered as the sum of its constituent parts (emergence property). When analyzing a complex system, along with considering it element by element, in a dissected form, it is also necessary to study it as a whole, in the entire set of connections.

The dynamic nature of the system is determined by the fact that it is in a state of continuous change, in dynamics. In this it differs from a static system.

Since, however, there are practically no systems in statics, dynamic systems, in contrast to static ones, are usually called those whose transition to a new state cannot take place at once, but requires some time and is carried out as a result of a certain process. Any control system can serve as an example of a dynamic system.

Complex systems characterized by the following important features:

the presence of a single purpose of functioning;

the presence of several levels of management, hierarchically linked;

the presence of subsystems, each of which has a purpose of functioning, subordinate to the general purpose of the functioning of the entire system;

- the presence of a large number of connections between subsystems, within each subsystem and the need for an extensive control communication network;

the complex composition of the system - the presence of people, machines and the natural environment;

resistance to external and internal disturbing factors and the presence of elements of self-organization.

A complex system is always made up of subsystems. Subsystems can be distinguished if each of them has:

the purpose of functioning, subordinated to the general purpose of the functioning of the entire system;

a set of elements that make up the system;

its own control system, which is part of the overall control system.

In this sense, the terms "system", "subsystem", "element" are relative. A particular system may be a subsystem in a higher level system. Conversely, the same system may include lower level systems. The division of the system into subsystems can be different depending on the principle taken as a basis.

The vast majority of complex systems operate under the influence of a large number of random factors. Therefore, it is possible to predict the behavior of a complex system only probabilistically, i.e., to determine the probability of the expected state of the system, to obtain distribution laws or some numerical characteristics of random variables that reflect the behavior of a complex system.

When building control systems of any degree of complexity, it is necessary to take into account the following basic principles - the laws of cybernetics.

Law of Necessary Variety. The essence of this law lies in the fact that the diversity of a complex system requires management, which itself has sufficient diversity. The law of necessary diversity substantiates the need for multivariate planning and the development of optimal solutions. Management, which is based on the consideration of a single version of the plan, cannot be recognized as scientific.

Optimal control, built on the consideration of various options, is, on the contrary, scientific control, corresponding to the law of necessary diversity. And the more complex, and hence the more diverse the system itself, the more important the optimality in management becomes.

The law of difference between the whole and the particular (the law of emergence).

This law consists in the presence of integral properties of the system, i.e., such properties of the system that are not inherent in its constituent elements. The larger the system, and the greater the difference in scale between the part and the whole, the more likely it is that the properties of the whole may be very different from those of the parts. Emergence is one of the forms of manifestation of the dialectical principle of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.

Numerous manifestations of the law of emergence are known - the efficiency of large-scale production, the social consequences of urbanization, the possibility of implementing major events in the field of fundamental research (space, nuclear energy), industry, and defense.

The law of the difference between the whole and the particular shows the difference between the local optima of individual subsystems and the global optimum of the entire system. This law shows the need for an integral consideration of the system, to achieve a general optimum.

When synthesizing control systems, it is generally accepted that common (emergent) interests are concentrated in the center of the system, in the central body, at the top level of the hierarchy, while private, inherent (immanent) ones are localized in the corresponding elements.

The law of external complement. In complex systems, the forecast of the state of the environment and the development of control actions by formal methods can be carried out only approximately.

As a result, there is always a need for meaningful control of the work of a formalized control scheme and its adjustment with the help of additional (external) informally made decisions. Such adjustments can be considered as the result of the functioning of the "black box" built between the output of the formalized control subsystem and the input of the controlled subsystem.

Deviations "not taken into account" when planning and creating systems will be the more natural, the more complex the system. The control system must therefore have appropriate reserves, compensators and regulators to correct for such "not taken into account" deviations.

The set of informal procedures for correcting algorithmically (formally) obtained control actions and setting various parameters is called external addition, and the theoretical necessity of such informal compensation is called the principle, or law, of external addition.

Law of Feedback requires building a system using closed loops. For the economy, this means the need to concentrate the plan and accounting in one hand.

Law of anti-entropy comes down to the fact that system management is always aimed at reducing the uncertainty in knowledge about the construction and behavior of the controlled system by increasing information awareness when making a decision. Control is always associated (for a given degree of system complexity) with the limitation of the degrees of freedom of the system, which is necessary to determine the purposeful behavior of the system.

§ 2. Production and economic system

A modern enterprise is a complex production and economic system. It is characterized by the following system features:

manifold structure, which is expressed in a large number of various structural elements, such as workshops, farms, laboratories;

difference in the nature of the elements, which, as you know, is one of the essential features of complex systems, is very pronounced in production and economic systems.

As the main elements of production, labor force, means of labor, objects of labor are considered.

This basic differentiation can naturally be deepened and expanded.

Multiple connection of elements of the production and economic system, which is expressed in the presence of a wide variety of connections between the elements of the TES. The transfer of various parts in the course of the technological process, the transfer of various types of energy, the provision of the production process with repairs and tools, information communications, transport communications, social communications between members of the PES team - this is not a complete list of various types of communication elements.

Connections and relations of PES elements are distinguished by stability, constant proportionality.

Dynamism, consisting in the constant change of states of the production-economic system, is its characteristic feature. This dynamism is expressed in the cyclical nature of the production process, its change over time, in fluctuations in the structure and relationships of its elements, and in a multitude of external and internal influences.

Multicriteria, which is one of the most characteristic properties of the production and economic system. On the one hand, there are many criteria, such as, for example, the range of products, the total volume of products sold, the amount of profit, profitability, the fulfillment of tasks for new technology, and labor productivity. Only a multiple assessment of such indicators will characterize the system. On the other hand, all subsystems at different levels of the PES hierarchy can be characterized by their particular criteria that together form a sequence of goals and criteria.

Probabilistic nature of production processes. The nature of the functioning of any production is probabilistic. Production is constantly influenced by numerous random factors. At any time, as a result of breakdowns, certain elements of equipment can fail, and thereby production will lose a certain part of active fixed assets. Randomly, a marriage occurs both in its production (technological marriage) and at the expense of supplies (purchased marriage), which leads to labor losses. Losses in the labor force due to staff turnover, illnesses and other factors, disruptions in the supply of components and materials are unexpected. Random are the duration of all production operations that affect the production cycle.

This list could be continued. Such phenomena lead to a delay in production plans, to an increase in work in progress. For a quantitative assessment of randomness, it is necessary to organize the collection of statistical data and their mathematical processing.

Probabilistic modeling of production processes will make it possible to establish the levels of insurance stocks that ensure that production fulfills its tasks with a given probability. An experienced manager, even without mathematical training, knows that it is necessary to protect the production process from accidental failures by creating a certain level of safety stocks. However, what should be the level of these safety stocks can only be determined mathematically. Constant collection and processing of statistical materials and probabilistic modeling of production allow us to determine the current characteristics and current levels of safety stocks. Depending on the nature of the elements in the enterprise, the following can be distinguished subsystems.

Technical subsystem is an interconnected, interdependent complex of equipment (machines, mechanisms, machine tools and groups of machine tools, production lines) that is in an agreed proportional state, designed to solve a specific problem.

Coordination consists in equalizing the throughput of the main production process, in accordance with the technology serving the main and auxiliary production processes, with modern requirements.

Technological subsystem is a set of rules that determine the sequence of operations and production processes, during which products are created with certain parameters and quality. The technological subsystem requires the strict implementation of these rules at all stages of the production process. Management in the technological subsystem consists in the careful development of technology, its further improvement as necessary, and careful monitoring of the quality of work throughout its duration.

Joint labor subsystem represents its necessary organization to achieve a specific goal, the quantitative and qualitative proportions of individual types of labor, their division and mutual connections in the production process.

Economic subsystem represents the unity of economic processes and economic relations of all aspects of production. The mechanism of action of economic laws is manifested in the enterprise in the process of movement of its funds in their monetary, production and commodity form. The movement of enterprise funds is the material basis of the technical, technological and socio-economic process at the enterprise.

Social subsystem represents the connection of people in the process of social production. Its main feature in market conditions is private ownership of the means of production. The connection of people is the basis for the existence of production and economic systems. The common economic interests of the PES team are to increase the wealth of society as a result of the activities of the team. Since PES acts in the production process as a relatively independent team, this team has its own specific economic interests that do not contradict the interests of the whole society or an individual. But individual groups and members of this team within the enterprise, based on the characteristics of technology and organization of production, solve different problems and have a certain differentiation of goals and interests.

Since the collective of the enterprise is its basis and active force, it must solve not only technical and economic problems, but also the tasks of educating people, raising the cultural and technical level, education, knowledge, etc.

Organization subsystem production allows rational use of people, equipment, objects of labor, factory space, creates conditions for increasing production efficiency within the specified resources.

All of these subsystems are interconnected and only in their unity make up the enterprise as a system.

The structure of the enterprise as an object of management. For production, as is known, the following elements are necessary: the object of labor, the means of production and human labor, its expedient activity.

The preparatory phase of production includes the following processes:

financing;

creation of a product model and a program for its manufacture;

selection and training of personnel;

providing the enterprise with the means of production;

logistics.

To implement the processes of direct production of products, along with preparation, it is necessary to ensure production. First of all, it includes the provision of equipment and tools, repair support, energy supply, etc. The same group should include processes aimed at ensuring high and stable product quality. Finally, this group will also include processes related to ensuring occupational health and safety.

The processes of transport and economic services constitute an independent group of production services.

Processes for the sale of finished products are also an independent group. By analogy with the preparatory processes, the implementation processes are at the junction of the sphere of production and the sphere of circulation. For the first they are the final act, for the second - the initial.

The enterprise as a complex dynamic system is constantly evolving. Many enterprises have their own scientific bases (research laboratories, design bureaus, etc.), which, along with external research and design organizations, carry out scientific developments for the further development of production. At the enterprises, as a rule, work is also carried out on the technical re-equipment of production.

The enterprises are also doing a lot of work on the social development of the team.

The foregoing allows us to conclude that the elements of a controlled system include the processes of enterprise development: scientific, technical and social.

From the point of view of a systematic approach, the managed (production) system of an enterprise can be divided into subsystems in accordance with the processes: production development, production preparation, main production, production support and maintenance, product sales (Fig. 4.5). At the same time, each of the subsystems can be considered as a system.

The relationship of the enterprise subsystem as a control object is shown in fig. 4.6.

§ 3. Management of the production and economic system

Control in a broad sense, there is a function of a certain system, aimed either at preserving the main quality of the system (the loss of which leads to its destruction), or at the implementation of a program that ensures the stability of the system’s functioning and the achievement of a given goal, or at the development of the system.

Management is a necessary condition for the normal functioning of any system. Any process, regardless of its nature, can be carried out in the right direction only if there are control actions from the governing bodies.

The emergence of management as a special type of social activity is primarily due to the emergence and development of the division of social labor. The social division of labor manifests itself in two main forms: in the formation of large specialized industries and differentiation of technological processes within their boundaries. As a result of the fragmentation of concrete labor into specialized parts, a wide network of peripheral cells of production is formed, each of which represents an economic cell. The division and isolation of specialized parts of labor determines the quantitative dependence between all parts of production, and as a result, a network of economic ties is formed, which is the wider, the deeper the division of labor.

Control in the production sphere can thus be defined as a targeted impact on teams of people to organize and coordinate their activities in the production process. There are three main areas of management:

control of machine systems and technological processes;

control of processes occurring in living organisms;

management of the activities of human teams that solve a particular problem.

A careful consideration of management processes in all areas has revealed their general patterns, which makes it possible to establish a single theoretical basis for management. This problem is dealt with by cybernetics - the science of the general laws of control in nature, living organisms and machines. From the point of view of cybernetics, control systems of various nature - biological, technical, social - have common patterns. All these control systems are united in principle by the same structure; the mathematical description of the processes occurring in control systems of various nature is similar.

Cybernetics considers management as a cyclic information process carried out in a closed loop to achieve the established goal of actions. Management always takes place in a certain material environment. The control body, the control object and the communication channels connecting them participate in the control process. A direct communication channel passes from the control body to the control object for transferring control actions. A feedback channel passes from the control object to the control body to transfer information about the state of the control object, the environment and other environmental factors.

The purpose of actions is achieved by the functioning of the control object. To achieve the goal of actions, the control object must be brought into the required state with the help of a control information impact.

Information about the state of the control object of the subject of influence and the environment is usually called state information. Control actions are information about what, how and when the control object should do, and they are usually called command information.

A control loop is a closed circuit consisting of a control element and a control object connected by direct and feedback channels, through which command information and state information circulate, respectively (Fig. 4.7).

Government

Collection of information

* u

Information processing

t )

u(t+t)

x(t )

u(t + t) = Ф( x(t ))

Control object

Rice. 4.7

The command information generally depends on the state information. This dependence can be expressed by the formula:

U( t+m)= F ( x ( t)U

where t - the moment to which the state information refers; x( t) - state information at a point in time t; t- working hours of the governing body;

F is the function of converting state information into command information; U(t + t)- command information related to the point in time (t + t) generated based on the state information x^).

Control function consists in converting state information into command information in accordance with the goal of actions.

Control object function consists in the implementation of command information, which consists in determining the action to achieve the goal, as well as in collecting state information. The function of the direct and feedback channels is to transfer state information from the control object to the control element and command information in the opposite direction.

Since information processes are the basis of control, the determination of the amount of information necessary for the development of control actions, the list of quantities, their dimensions, the moments of receipt, discreteness, means of transmission, the speed and reliability of the transmission of information signals is of paramount importance.

The essence of the process of processing information in the management system is what we usually call the development and adoption of a decision. Based on the task - the goal of management and data - information about the object of management and the state of the external environment, the manager, according to certain rules, takes the only, chosen from many possible, impact on the object.

The immediate goal of management is the achievement by the system of indicators characterizing the state and functioning of the system. As such indicators - target functions, or performance criteria, there may be: a planned target for output, profitability, profit, labor productivity.

The achievement of the specified values of the efficiency criteria is carried out by choosing the control actions on the control object by the control body. This choice is the main content of information processing in the management system. On its basis, a decision is made in the governing body. The development of a solution occurs according to certain rules - the mum algorithm. Formalization comes down to creating, on the basis of a meaningful, semantic description of this process, its model that connects the target control function with parameters - the initial data of the system.

For normal operation, the production management system must have the following data:

purpose of management;

an ideal model of the future functioning of the object, calculated so that the goal is achieved in an optimal way;

a model of the actual state of the object to compare it with the ideal model and find deviations;

- information aimed at eliminating deviations of the actual state of the model from the ideal one.

The availability of these data is ensured by the following three main phases of management: planning, accounting and analysis, regulation.

Planning is divided into technical and economic and operational production. The first combines long-term and current planning and is built in relation to individual elements of the control object (production capacity, labor resources, material resources, etc.). It justifies the end results and the required resources. The second makes it its main task to plan the implementation of production processes (development of calendar standards, issuance of tasks for jobs, etc.) in order to link the individual elements of production in time and space.

The planning phase is the leading one in management, because with its help enterprises are given the goal, meaning and methods of management. Through it, the enterprise is connected with the external environment, linked with the economic policy in the country, systems of financing, incentives, etc.

Accounting and regulation depend on planning: accounting is carried out according to plan indicators, and the task of regulation is to constantly maintain the actual indicators of the object at the level of planned targets.

The execution of the plan is guaranteed by the regulation phase. The meaning of this phase is to eliminate current mismatches (disturbances) in production. The regulation phase is linked to planning through accounting.

An analysis of the phases of planning and regulation shows that the organization of production processes is multivariate. One and the same planning can be carried out in many different ways, far from being equivalent in terms of results. The same can be said about the regulation phase: the elimination of disturbances can take different, more or less effective ways. And among the many options for planning and regulating production, as a rule, there is the best, optimal. Finding it is one of the main tasks of management. Choosing the best solution requires processing a huge amount of various information.

An important factor from the point of view of a systematic approach to an enterprise is the organization of a controlled system, which is considered as a certain ordering of the elements of the system and their interaction. The elements of the controlled system in this case are material and personal objects: means of production and people.

The concept of organization thus includes the formation of the system and the management of its functioning. As a result, the concept of organization is in a certain sense broader than the concept of management. However, since the establishment of the enterprise, all its elements must function in an interconnected manner so that the selected criteria reach extreme values and the goals of the enterprise's functioning are realized in the best possible way. Ensuring the best in relation to the selected criteria for the operation of the enterprise is the goal of the functioning of its management system. The structure of the management system reflects, as a rule, the structure of the management object in the sense that the main divisions of the enterprise correspond to similar divisions of the management system.

The PES management system should be understood as an organized team of specialists that performs all management functions that ensure the achievement of the goals of the enterprise, using the necessary information, methods and management techniques. A system of control functions will be called a complete complex of time and space-related work on control.

As the main system functions of enterprise management, it is advisable to take:

planning of production and economic activity of the enterprise;

operational management of production;

management of enterprise development and technical preparation of production;

management of material and technical supply of production;

sales management of finished products;

product quality control;

accounting for production and financial activities of the enterprise;

management of technical support and organizational and economic maintenance of production;

selection, placement, education and improvement of the cultural and technical level of personnel;

management of social development of the enterprise;

improvement of the organization of production, labor and management.

To perform each of the listed management functions, it is necessary to ensure the performance of a set of works or the solution of a set of particular management tasks.

Naturally, the processes of production and management run in parallel and are interconnected, forming together a single system. Production cannot function without management, and management without production is meaningless.

Hierarchy of control functions. The PES control system is multi-level. The hierarchy of levels is shown in fig. 4.8. Material production is depicted as a resource transformation flow subject to the stochastic influence of the external environment. The management function directly related to the material flow is the function of providing the production process with the necessary resources: objects of labor, tools of labor and people who transform the object of labor with the help of tools into finished products. For the cyclical implementation of this function, the sale of products is necessary. Thus, this function includes hiring and firing workers, maintaining stocks and selling finished products, providing energy, tools and repairs, maintaining the level of fixed assets.

To maintain at any given moment the level of resources in the proper state, it is necessary to manage the process of their provision in time. This is performed by the following two levels of the management hierarchy: operational production planning and operational regulation. They play a major role in the process of stabilizing the activity of an industrial enterprise. The operational control function receives information about the required and actual state of the process, generates control actions and implements them. Information about the required state of the process is supplied to it from the function of operational production planning, which essentially gives the current settings for the adjustable parameters of the control object (for a month, day, shift).

Rice. 4.8

These settings can be set based on regulatory data and the annual production program.

The annual production program is a function of the next level of the hierarchy - the function of technical and economic planning. It is compiled on the basis of tasks coming from a higher authority, information on the state of production and the external environment, as well as on the basis of the results of the functioning of the forecasting and development subsystem of the enterprise, which occupies the highest position in the enterprise management hierarchy.

The function of the forecasting system is to analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of the entire economic activity of the enterprise and predict the prospects for its development, depending on the requirements of the entire economic system of society and the state of the environment.

The result of the actions of this subsystem affects the state of annual plans and the special and technical development of the enterprise.

Let us consider one of the rational options for the relationship of the main tasks of managing the functioning of the PES, shown in fig. 4.9. Each block in this figure is not a purely formalized, but a human-machine procedure, in which the decisive word remains with the person.

Information base

Formation of a plan according to the nomenclature

Formation of the main technical and economic indicators

Calculation of logistics

i Calculation of the optimal lot size

Calculation of safety stocks

Building a launch-release schedule

Recording and analysis of the actual production progress

Regulation of the production process

Collection and processing of statistical data

Rice. 4.9

The results of considering production and economic systems as objects of control allow us to conclude that these are typical complex systems. The main tool for their study is system analysis, and they can only be managed from the standpoint of a systematic approach. Considering any element of the production and economic system and making any decision, one should always anticipate possible changes in all links of the system, no matter how far they are separated from each other.

Scientific, technical and social progress leads to the complication of production, the range and labor intensity of products increase, and the links between the elements of production multiply. All this leads to a progressive complication of management processes: more information is required, less time is left for decision-making, and management errors become more expensive. A relatively large part of the plant personnel is involved in the management process. Finally, there are processes that need robotization or whose speed cannot be controlled.

§ 4. Modeling of production and economic systems

Modeling is the main method for studying production and economic systems. Modeling is understood as such a way of displaying objective reality, in which a specially constructed model is used to study the original, reproducing certain (usually only essential) properties of the studied real phenomenon (process).

Model is an object of any nature that is able to replace the object under study so that its study provides new information about the object under study.

In accordance with these definitions, the concept of modeling includes the construction of a model (quasi-object) and operations on it to obtain new information about the object under study. From the standpoint of use, a model can be understood as a display of a system that is convenient for analysis and synthesis. Between the system and its model there is a correspondence relationship, which allows you to explore the system through the study of the model.

The type of model is determined primarily by the questions that it is desirable to answer with the help of the model. There may be varying degrees of correspondence between the model and the simulated system.

Often the model reflects only the functions of the system, and the structure of the model (and its adequacy to the system) does not play a role, it is considered as a "black box".

The simulation model already includes a single display of both the functions of the system and the essence of the processes occurring in it.

Modeling as a method of cognition is based on the fact that all models reflect reality in one way or another. Depending on how and by what means, under what conditions, in relation to which objects of cognition this property is realized, a wide variety of models arise. There are a number of principles for classifying models of different nature, of which the most significant are the following:

by the method of displaying reality, and consequently by the apparatus of construction (form);

by the nature of the simulated objects (content).

According to the display method or construction apparatus, two types of models are distinguished (Fig. 4.10): material and mental (or ideal).

material models

Mental (ideal) models

space-like

descriptive

physically similar

Visual-figurative

Mathematically similar

iconic

Rice. 4.10

material models- these are models that are built or selected by man and exist objectively, being embodied in metal, wood, glass, electrical elements, biological organizations and other material structures.

Material models are divided into three subspecies:

space-like models - structures designed to display the spatial properties or relationships of an object (models of houses, factories, city districts, transport networks, equipment location in a workshop, etc.). A prerequisite for such models is geometric similarity;

physically similar models - material models that aim to reproduce various kinds of physical connections and dependencies of the object under study (models of dams of power plants, ships and aircraft). The basis for the construction of such models is physical similarity - the sameness of physical nature and the identity of the laws of motion;

mathematically similar models - models that have, to one degree or another, the same mathematical formalism that describes the behavior of an object and a model (analogue computers, cybernetic functional models); mathematically similar material models are real or physical shells of some mathematical relations, but not the relations themselves.

mental(or ideal) models are divided into three subspecies:

descriptive (conceptual) models in which relationships are expressed in language images;

visual-figurative models - models, the images of which in the mind are built from sensory-visual elements;

sign (including mathematical) models - mental models in which the elements of an object and their relationships are expressed using signs (including automatic symbols and formulas).

It is not possible to classify models according to the nature of the objects being modeled due to their extreme diversity.

The ultimate goal of modeling is to study not the model as such, but some other object of study that is different from it, but reproduced by it.

Obviously, no models can and should not fully reproduce all aspects and details of the phenomena being studied: an enterprise can be characterized from various points of view - a director or chief engineer, an accountant, a supplier or a power engineer. In accordance with this, both the nature and construction of the model will be different.

Modeling as a method of scientific knowledge is based on the ability of a person to abstract the initial features or properties of various phenomena (processes) and establish a certain relationship between them. This creates the opportunity to study phenomena or processes indirectly, namely, by studying models that are analogous to them in some strictly defined respect.

In the general case, the following sequence of system modeling is appropriate: a conceptual description (research) of the system, its formalization, and, finally, if necessary, algorithmization and quantification of the system.

When modeling production and economic systems, along with formalized, mathematical methods of analysis used for individual subsystems or private processes, it is also necessary to use heuristic methods for analyzing production in those of its elements and relationships that are not amenable to formalization. And when using mathematical methods, due to the multitude of variables, one often has to resort to simplifications, to use the methods of decomposition and aggregation of variables, due to which the solutions acquire an approximate, qualitative character.

Due to the presence in large complex systems of organizational and production management of links and connections that are difficult or not formalized at all, for their study it is necessary to use mainly descriptive models. When decomposing the system into separate functional subsystems, it is then necessary to look for those subsystems that lend themselves to mathematical formalization, thus modeling individual elements of the overall production process.

The ultimate goal of modeling the production and economic system is the preparation and adoption of a managerial decision by the head of the enterprise.

Since there is no generally accepted classification of mathematical models and methods for modeling production and economic systems, we will consider this issue in relation to the purpose and objectives of this tutorial.

From the standpoint of automating the management of production and economic systems, the models used can be distinguished by the following features:

on the purposes of modeling;

by tasks (functions) of management;

by stages (procedures) of management;

on mathematical modeling methods.

Depending on the goals of modeling, there are models designed for:

- design of control systems;

performance evaluations;

analysis of the capabilities of the enterprise in various conditions of its activity;

development of optimal solutions in various production situations;

calculation of organizational structures of the management system;

calculation of information support, etc.

The specificity of the models of this classification subdivision is expressed primarily in the choice of appropriate performance criteria, as well as in the procedure for implementing the simulation results.

Depending on the tasks (functions) of management, there are models of scheduling, enterprise development management, product quality control, etc. The models of this division are focused on specific production and economic tasks and, as a rule, should provide numerical results.

Depending on the stage (procedure) of control automation, models can be informational, mathematical, software. The models of this subdivision are aimed at the corresponding stages of the movement and processing of information.

Depending on the applied mathematical apparatus, the models can be divided into the following five large groups: extreme, mathematical programming (planning), probabilistic, statistical and game-theoretic.

To extreme models include models that make it possible to find the extremum of a function or functional. This includes models built using graphical methods, Newton's method and its modifications, calculus of variations, Pontryagin's maximum principle, etc. Based on the capabilities of these methods, they are used primarily to solve operational control problems.

Models mathematical programming(planning) include models of linear programming, non-linear programming, dynamic programming. This also usually includes network planning models.

Mathematical programming combines a number of mathematical methods designed to best allocate the limited resources available: raw materials, fuel, labor, time, as well as to draw up the corresponding best (optimal) action plans.

Linear programming is used in cases where production conditions are described by a system of linear equations or inequalities. If these equations are non-linear, non-linear (convex, quadratic) programming methods are used.

Dynamic programming serves to select the best plan for performing multi-stage actions, in which the result of each subsequent step depends on the previous steps, for example, when solving problems of planning the production activities of an enterprise.

Network planning is designed to plan, prepare and carry out various types of production activities, as well as to manage these activities during their implementation.

To probabilistic models include models built using the apparatus of probability theory, models of random processes of Markov type (Markov chains), models of queuing theory, and others.

Probabilistic models describe phenomena and processes of a random nature, for example, those associated with all kinds of non-systematic deviations and errors (manufacturing defects, etc.), the influence of natural disasters, possible equipment malfunctions, etc.

The theory of Markov random processes was developed to describe operations that develop randomly in time, such as, for example, the transmission of information over communication channels.

Queuing theory considers mass repetitive phenomena, such as, for example, failure and repair of equipment.

Statistical models include models of sequential analysis, the method of statistical tests (Monte Carlo), etc. This also includes methods of random search.

Sequential analysis makes it possible to make decisions based on hypotheses, each of which is immediately verified sequentially, for example, when assessing the quality of a batch of products, when setting up all kinds of experiments, etc.

The method of statistical testing lies in the fact that the course of a particular operation is played, as if copied by a computer, with all the inherent randomness of this operation, for example, when modeling organizational tasks, complex forms of cooperation between various enterprises, etc. The use of this method is called simulation modeling.

Random search methods are used to find extreme values of complex functions that depend on a large number of arguments. These methods are based on the use of a mechanism for random selection of arguments by which minimization is carried out. Random search methods are used, for example, in modeling organizational management structures.

game-theoretic models are designed to justify decisions under conditions of uncertainty, ambiguity (incomplete information) of the situation and the associated risk.

Game theory methods include game theory and statistical decision theory. Game theory is a theory of conflict situations. It is used in cases where the uncertainty of the situation is caused by the possible actions of the conflicting parties. Game-theoretic models can be used to justify managerial decisions in conditions of industrial and labor conflicts, when choosing the right line of conduct in relation to customers, suppliers, contractors, etc.

The theory of statistical decisions is applied when the uncertainty of the situation is caused by objective circumstances that are either unknown (for example, some characteristics of new materials, the quality of new technology, etc.) etc.).

Game-theoretic models should be used in preparing, conducting and evaluating the results of business games.

All mathematical models can also be subdivided into performance evaluation models and optimization models. Performance evaluation models are designed to develop the characteristics of production and management. This group includes all probabilistic models. Performance evaluation models are "input" in relation to optimization models.

Optimization models are designed to select the best course of action or line of behavior under given conditions. This group includes extreme and statistical models, models of mathematical programming, as well as game-theoretic models.

Some of the most common models used in solving production problems will be considered below.

A special place among the methods used to manage production and economic systems is occupied by game simulation. A distinctive feature of this method is the involvement of people involved in the development and implementation of a business game to model the management process. In this case, a business game is understood as an imitation by a group of people of solving individual problems of the economic or organizational activities of an enterprise, performed on an object model, in an environment as close as possible to the real one.

Introduction to the model of a person as an element of the organization of management makes it possible to take into account his behavior in cases where it cannot be adequately described using mathematical models known today. This allows you to solve such management tasks that do not fit into the framework of existing formalized methods.

The business game introduces psychological and emotional moments into the process of preparing and making managerial decisions, encouraging the use of past experience of managers, their intuition in this process, developing the ability to make heuristic decisions. The business game is carried out in relation to a specific managerial task according to a scenario carefully developed in advance. The general game model is formed as a set of private models created by the participants - persons preparing and making managerial decisions.

The business game model includes both formalized and non-formalized parts. The participants of the game act according to certain rules. They are guided by specially developed instructions for playing the game, as well as by the data of the situation at their disposal.

In accordance with the scenario of the game, participants periodically receive introductory information about changes in the situation. When preparing their decisions, the participants in the business game assess the situation and make the necessary calculations manually or with the help of a computer. At the same time, formalized, pre-prepared elements of the game model are used, which correspond to modern methods of operations research.

By managing the course of a business game, its leader evaluates the decisions of the participants, establishes the results of their actions and brings the latter to the players. If necessary, the head of the game can change the situation, bringing these changes to the participants in the form of introductory ones. The assessment of the actions of the participants in the game is carried out by calculations, expert methods, as well as based on the experience of the leader, his intuition and common sense.

The main type of game simulation carried out at enterprises is a production business game. Its goal is to improve existing and develop new forms of organization of production management, development of guidance documents, restructuring of production, etc.

As models for conducting business games, methods of network planning and management (SPM), built on the basis of network graphs, are widely used. When solving planning problems, dynamic programming methods are used, and when solving problems of resource allocation - linear programming.

To train management personnel, a production business game can be conducted in an educational version, i.e., as an educational business game. Its main task is to train employees and improve their management skills. If necessary, an educational business game is also used to certify the executives of enterprises in the performance of their official duties, as well as when they are promoted to the highest position.

test questions

What is a production-economic system?

How is a complex system described?

What is optimal system control?

What is the difference between deterministic and probabilistic systems?

Name the main features of complex systems.

Describe the basic principles of cybernetics in relation to production and economic systems.

Name the main subsystems of the enterprise.

Describe the structure of the enterprise as an object of management.

Define management in the manufacturing sector.

Describe the functions of the body and the control object and their hierarchy.

What is the essence of modeling the production and economic system?

Describe the main types of models of production and economic systems.

Economic life is a kind of theater of events in which various groups of people act, participate, and clearly manifest themselves. The totality of socio-economic groups forms a socio-economic structure on the scale of society as a whole, a region or a settlement, a branch of the economy, an organization.

Singling out and distinguishing groups in a community is social stratification. Since the main components in economic life are labor and labor relations, the most important objective grounds for socio-economic stratification can be considered:

Employment, its measure and type;

position in the social division of labor, i.e. employment in managerial or executive, agricultural or industrial, physical or mental labor;

Features of labor in terms of severity, complexity, communication, risk, physical and moral conditions;

profession or occupation, i.e. employment for wages and requiring professional qualifications or self-employment with free income, including independent of education;

· attitude to ownership of the means of production, its presence or absence, as well as its measure, form and type;

· attitude to the organization and management of production and labor, its level, economic and legal grounds, formal or informal nature;

income, their measure and sources, legitimacy or morality, stable or unstable character;

education and qualifications, their level, profile, prestige.

Given the above reasons, a large number of groups can be distinguished. The scientific, business and everyday versions of their names are unstable over time, often disputed, and sometimes they simply do not coincide in many ways. This suggests that the phenomenon of socio-economic structure is very difficult to reflect in the public mind.

Along with the objective, there are also subjective grounds for socio-economic stratification. Here, the groups differ in terms of some human qualities that are of great importance for labor and labor relations - categorical orientations towards certain professions; style of behavior and activity in the same types of labor; passivity or activity; leadership; law-abiding; attitudes towards work and wages; morality in labor and property matters; predisposition to individual or joint work. In studying the socio-economic structure, we consider the subjective plane of objective groups and the objective plane of subjective groups. Groups identified on objective grounds develop their own consciousness and behavior, while at the same time groups identified on objective grounds influence the economy, take their objective position in the professional division of labor, achieve a better or worse objective property position precisely due to or as a result of their psychology. .

Socio-economic stratification has its own complexities and contradictions.

Which socio-economic groups can be singled out as significant, worthy of attention, depends not only on the tasks of analysis, but also on the interests and worldview of the analysts themselves.

Depending on the weight of the socio-economic differences, the groups will also be more or less significant. The weight of the same differences is not the same in different cases, i.e. relative. There are specific forms of relativity of socio-economic differences.

1. Many fundamental differences in professions and occupations are being erased under the influence of technological progress, as well as in conditions of an acute shortage of jobs; people attach less importance to these differences even if their orientation towards material incentives is strong.

2. Differences in income are not so significant if the latter are (on average) large for everyone, if there are no opportunities for their realization, or if society, these individuals and groups are especially oriented towards spiritual values.

3. Employment or unemployment does not express people's socioeconomic status as clearly if unemployment is temporary, or if workers on average earn low wages, or if unemployment benefits are high enough.

4. Education can only mean the professional nature of labor and be a small nuance of work and life, or it can play the role of a kind of capital that determines the socio-economic prospects of a person; education is in some cases also a factor that either guarantees employment, or contributes to unemployment, or is irrelevant in this respect.

5. Property has unequal socio-economic significance for people in terms of its democratic or caste distribution, political stability or instability of economic relations; property is also an unequal opportunity in different cases for an individual or group to develop and enlarge their own means of production, stability of income and existence, free labor, domination over people, etc., which indicates the optional attractiveness and profitability of owning and disposing of it.

6. The individual qualities of people are also subject to the principle of relativity. If in some socio-economic systems, situations, specific cases, some behavioral and spiritual properties do not matter, then in others they determine the status, achievements and comfort of individuals and groups; if in some cases an organization, due to the principle of its structure, is able to foresee and neutralize some qualities and actions of people, in others, on the contrary, it can develop and realize them to the maximum.

Depending on what, in a certain community, are the differences between groups of people related to labor and labor relations, we can single out and study some strategic models of socio-economic structures.

1. interclass model. The most significant differences are differences between several very large group-classes, which are in the nature of open contradictions. People themselves easily realize and express them. At the same time, each of the group-classes is quite homogeneous in itself and is characterized by a high cohesion index.

2. intraclass model. There are no differences between the main groups-classes that could be considered significant and give rise to contradictions in their relationships. These group-classes have sufficiently "integrated into the system", adapted to each other, divided and defined roles, working conditions and incomes without conflict. At the same time, it was precisely because of this that heterogeneity increased within them. Contradictory differences between groups-classes turned out to be transformed into internal problems, into increased differentiation and even conflict.

3. superclass model. Differences and contradictions are evenly distributed in the external and internal relations of the main groups. At the same time, both strengthening and weakening of differences between these groups-classes can have a uniform character.

In the analysis of the socio-economic structure, along with the grounds for stratification, principle of typology. Social and socio-economic groups may differ in terms that are not related to direct group-forming factors, but are also important.

We single out the following main typologically different groups.

1. Traditional and new groups. Traditional groups are long-standing and well-integrated into the socio-economic system. Although, of course, some socio-professional and socio-labor categories of people can remain disadvantaged for a relatively long time. New - these are newly emerged groups that do not yet have a certain status. They are promising or unpromising, they will be able to take their place in the socio-economic structure or not; uncertainty about the status of a new group is simply uncertainty about the conditions of activity, rights and opportunities, maximum possible income, etc. Representatives of the traditional group better and more realistically represent all the circumstances of their existence.

2. dominant groups. The concept of dominance reflects the specific processes of intergroup leadership and the dominance of some groups over others, which also occur in the socio-economic structure. Dominance can be long-term or temporary, and take many forms. Let us dwell on some of the most specific phenomena.

First, dominance can be based on role priority. Imagine that some groups are able to make the most significant contribution to economic development, to overcome problematic situations in this development, are of particular importance in maintaining production and mastering its new areas and principles of organization. Such groups claim protection from the bureaucracy and privileges, they can actually receive them. The working class may turn out to be the dominant group (in conditions of industrialization); the peasantry (in conditions of famine or the orientation of the economy towards agricultural production); engineering and technical intelligentsia (in conditions of mass automation and robotization); managers (in a booming managerial culture); economists (in the context of a global revision of the economic system and the search for a new economic philosophy), etc. The phenomenon of dominance can also be clearly manifested at the micro level (for example, in a situation where the importance of suppliers, trade union activists, highly skilled workers, employees of some kind of production that brings special profit to the enterprise, etc.) sharply increases.

From the point of view of economic sociology, such processes in the economy as claims to dominance, propaganda of dominance, conflict over dominance, containment of dominance, etc., are interesting.

Secondly, the basis of dominance is the principle of basic and non-basic functions. Groups that perform the main functions acquire features of superiority, they are more prestigious, often have the opportunity to impose their will and behavior on those groups that are engaged in various kinds of auxiliary, intermediary, temporary, non-specialized tasks. Non-core functions sometimes make those who perform them socially dependent. Thus, the division of functions into basic and non-basic is a problem not only of the economic organization of production, but also of social relations.

In all cases, dominance is accompanied by such social indicators as the special objective weight of roles or functions, the presence of privileges, special prestige, the ability to determine the situation and conditions for everyone, direct dictate, and relatively large labor costs compared to others.

3) marginal groups. There are groups that occupy a borderline, intermediate position in the socio-economic structure, combining the features of several groups (more often the comparative plan is "extremes", two significantly different groups). Intermediateness, borderliness, and there is marginality. Let us give the following examples of the marginality of groups (marginal groups):

The so-called self-employed workers, ie. persons who own property but do not employ hired labor. The borderline nature of this group is revealed when it is compared with owners and workers;

The so-called new poor. There are two meanings to this concept. The new poor are people who do not experience material need, but lag behind in income from the average standard of living, or people who, for some reason, suddenly find themselves poor, but by inertia retain their self-consciousness and consumer attitudes of the middle class;

Categories of workers employed in the city but living in the countryside, or vice versa. This social category combines the features of a peasant and a worker, a rural and urban dweller (in the countryside, its representatives perceive themselves as townspeople, and in the city as villagers, etc.). Sociological studies of this category are relevant and interesting from the point of view of the type of personality and the characteristics of relationships with others;

Some categories of highly skilled workers. Formally, they belong to the working class, but in fact they perform tasks and functions that allow them to recognize themselves as scientific and technical intelligentsia;

Lower management level. Formally, they belong to the management, they are perceived as managers and representatives of the apparatus, but in fact they are busy with problems of direct production, they are associated with grass-roots jobs, they know the tasks and functions of ordinary workers well, often even perform them, sometimes they communicate with workers more confidentially than with the administration;

trade union activists. A comparative plan of their marginality is hired workers and employers. Initially, trade union activists are defenders of the interests of the first social category, but practice makes it necessary to understand, respect and take into account the interests of another category, therefore, in reality, they have a dual consciousness and self-awareness.

In each of the specific socio-economic groups, one can find features of borderlines, transition. Therefore, the very category of marginality is of particular importance when it comes to significantly different and contradictory features. In the worst case, marginality can turn into a subject's conflict, the uncertainty and inconsistency of his behavior, and his lack of clear value orientations. From a socio-economic point of view, marginality can be both an advantageous and disadvantageous position, allowing one to claim the rights and opportunities of different groups at the same time, or even depriving these rights and opportunities as "strangers".

According to sociological definitions, the so-called declassed elements also belong to the marginal ones, i.e. persons who do not belong to any of the socio-economic groups taken as the main classes. Being marginal in this sense of the word, these individuals are also deprived of interests, self-awareness, behavior that are considered socially normal in the existing system.

4) problem groups. These include groups that are disadvantaged in the general socio-economic background in terms of generally accepted and apparent socio-economic standards. Problematic groups can also be classified as those whose interests, needs, expectations (estimated as legitimate, normal) are not realized for a sufficiently long time. Problematicness is assessed primarily in terms of objective indicators. Subjective indicators do not always adequately reflect the situation, since individuals are capable of both exaggerating and ignoring, not being aware of the unfavorable aspects of their situation.

The simplest examples of problem groups are the unemployed, interethnic and interregional migrants, working single mothers, working heads of large families, representatives of harmful and difficult areas of work, low-paid workers who want to improve their skills and education, but do not have the opportunity to do so, etc. .

5) Closed, open, transitional groups. The most general criterion for determining the openness or closeness of groups is the possibility of intergroup movements, exit from the group or entry into it. Initially, in sociology, the phenomenon of openness or closeness of groups was considered in the socio-generational aspect. There is a so-called caste society, where each new generation inherits the profession of their parents and the transition from one socio-professional group to another is practically impossible, and a free democratic society, where social origin is not dominant, where there is free professional choice and official status depends on personal merit. The first society corresponds to a closed, and the second - an open social and socio-economic structure.

6) nominal and real groups. The nominal group is based on the similarity of external signs of many people. For example, a nominal group might include everyone on the same payroll, everyone in the same job, all high-skilled workers, everyone with a given style of work, everyone working in small (or large) enterprises, and so on.

A real group is based on real relationships, i.e. real contacts and interactions, frequent face-to-face communication, sometimes coexistence at the same time in the same place. In this case, the magnitude of such generality may not matter.

There are no absolutely insurmountable differences between the real and the nominal groups. Under certain conditions, a nominal group can become real if “purely external signs” turn out to be a reason for people to unite in a community to express solidarity, mutual support, and joint actions, at least for a while. Similarly, a real group, if internal ties break up in it, turns into a nominal group of people who are only formally considered to be something united, whole. A similar fate can befall both small production teams and large economic associations.

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