From the end of the 5th century A.D. e. after the fall of Ancient Rome in Europe, the era of the Middle Ages begins, which radically changed the face of the subject environment. When in the 5th century Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite in his essay "On heavenly hierarchy"formulated the system of the universe, which assumed the eternal order of spheres moving according to mathematically exact parameters, concentrating around the Earth, it was created, mentally set the cultural space in which the millennial kingdom of the Middle Ages was to exist. Christianity accepted the cosmogony of the Areopagite not because it found it suitable for itself, but because I both seemed to people for granted. Therefore, back in the 12th century, Abbot Suger divided the space of Saint-Denis in accordance with the picture of the world that the author of the essay "On the Heavenly Hierarchy" drew. And a century later, Daite unfolded it in his Divine Comedy.

It was a harsh, disturbing era, but also creative. The era of the highest development of feudalism, which means that it was no longer a search, but a finding of stable forms of social organization, an era of new state formations, no longer artificial or accidental, but organically born with the awakening of national self-consciousness. This was the era when young Europe found a certain synthesis of borrowings and traditions that, without merging with each other, influenced the attitude of the early Middle Ages.

The streets are tight medieval cities built up with narrow tall houses, each of which was a closed space in itself. Squeezed between neighboring buildings with small iron-bound doors and shuttered windows, the house included housing and utility rooms.

Household furniture. European Middle Ages.

The main room served as both a dining room and a kitchen. A copper cauldron hung over the hearth, a cupboard with dishes, a large rectangular table, chests with clothes and utensils stood at a distance.

The achievements of the handicraft art of antiquity were forgotten, all the furniture was made by carpenters who did not know the tricks of various connections of parts and tie-ins. The table in those days was a wooden shield on the goats, benches and stools were of the simplest design with legs diverging downwards inserted directly into the seat.

Romantics, dreaming of a journey into the past, came to a rather original solution: given that it is unrealistic to physically be in medieval Europe, nothing prevents them from stylizing their own apartment as a castle. Today, the medieval style in the interior of the kitchen is very popular.

medieval spirit

Old European cuisine is characterized by the presence of an impressive, no less large oven, which simultaneously plays the role of a hearth, as well as simple pieces of furniture that are not interconnected. The unique medieval style in one of the "strategically important" rooms is created with the help of interesting ornaments, lancet windows, arches and, of course, colored stained-glass windows. At the same time, it is important to remember about compliance with the requirements of modern design.

Thanks to the introduction of interesting decor elements, the kitchen seems not only cozy, but also reliable. Key Feature medieval style is the presence of hand-made "ingredients" and genuine craftsmanship.

The main style elements are:

1. Floors and walls made of stone.
2. Utensils and accessories made of copper or tin.
3. The presence of stained glass windows and mosaics.
4. Brick walls.
5. Rich, deep colors.
6. The presence of modern kitchen appliances, skillfully "hidden" behind the doors of cabinets made of dark wood.

Ceiling

Medieval style will ideal solution for a room with a high ceiling that can easily be turned into a vaulted masterpiece. In the old days, the ceilings of the castle kitchens were equipped with thick wooden beams. This element is still present today, and it is customary to “ennoble” the “ribs” of frame arches with the help of carved details. The ornament is selected taking into account the taste preferences of the customer and the characteristics of the kitchen.

An equally important requirement for a medieval style is the presence of a large number of light sources. To create the appropriate environment, it is recommended to pay attention to the big,.

Color spectrum

The notion of the Middle Ages as an exceptionally gloomy period is unfounded. Designers who lived several centuries ago, working on the design of the kitchen, preferred shades of deep saturated colors. In particular honor were combinations of shades:

• red;
• blue
• amber.

If you have a penchant for calm and warm tones, then the best solution would be to “introduce” into the kitchen or ashy colors. It is important to observe the natural contrast of oppositional natural colors. So, hand-forged elements and dark wood look spectacular against the light background of the ceiling and walls.

When designing a kitchen, such types of natural stone are widely used, such as:

• granite;
• marble;
• limestone;
• travertine.

The design will have a "zest" if natural stone is combined with furniture made of solid walnut and with cherry or cherry floors.

Walls and floors

The main difference from the kitchen in a modern style in the design of the castle room is the following:

• walls made of brick or stone can be decorated with characteristic paintings a la the work of the great Michelangelo;
• in the area of ​​​​the stove and sink with the help of decorative stone, you can create elegant arched windows or openings;
• the ideal solution for the "castle" style would be the installation of floors from ceramic tiles or natural stone.

You can also use dark or light wallpaper with a specific pattern. Bright, flashy colors should be avoided.

Accessories

Well, what is the Middle Ages without fancy candlesticks, figurines and figured candles? These are the very details that contribute to the creation of an ancient atmosphere and are an interesting "highlight" of the room.

In addition, such characteristic elements as:

1. Handles on entrance and furniture doors made of copper or bronze.
2. Mixers made of copper or brass.
3. Decorative grilles and lamps.

Medieval textiles

An excellent solution for a “castle” kitchen would be the use of fabrics in rich, rich colors. The presence of stripes or a stylish floral print is welcome.

If you are interested in floral decor, then the choice should be stopped not on delicate roses, but on the “children of the sun”, more characteristic of these difficult and harsh times - sunflowers.

For kitchen curtains, heavy velvet is a great choice.

Furniture

The main criterion for furniture is its. Considering that the medieval style is characterized not only by aspiration upwards, but also by the presence of strict lines and even some rudeness, kitchen tables should be tall and their legs long. No less high "long-legged" chairs, reminiscent of a throne, will give the room a kind of charm.

It is important that in the medieval kitchen there is a place for the following pieces of furniture:

• dressuaries (open buffets);
• credenza cabinets;
• showcases;
• chairs with high backs and special footrests.

Characteristic for that time, the drawings carved on the furniture, which carry a certain secret meaning, will also be original solution. The color of the furniture should be close to natural.

Conclusion

Like, a medieval room suggests the presence of specific decorative elements. Colorful ceramics and pretty bowls made of high-quality glass can not only create coziness, but also bring a bit of a truly medieval atmosphere.

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19

Introduction

As you may remember, last time I touched on the topic of the emergence and development of furniture in ancient world as a household and interior item. We plunged into antiquity, went through the stages of development of furniture, from Ancient Egypt to the great Roman Empire. I want to continue this excursion into the history and development of human civilization. Let's continue our journey through the centuries of history.

era of the Byzantine Empire.

The next stage in the development of furniture, and methods of its manufacture, was the era of the Byzantine Empire. In the 4th century, Christianity in Ancient Rome acquired the status of a state religion. The empire, weakened due to the class struggle and internal contradictions, the constant raids of the barbarians, fell into two parts. Rome and the western part of the empire fell under the onslaught of the barbarians. The eastern part of the Roman Empire, which separated in 395, formed the Byzantine (Greek) Empire. It included Egypt and Syria, Western Asia and the Balkan region. The capital of the state was the city of "Byzantium" (it was the capital of the Roman Empire since 330) - the first name of Constantinople, renamed in honor of the Christian emperor Constantine. The Byzantine state was often called Greek by its neighbors due to the fact that the Greek language prevailed there. However, the people who lived in this state called themselves Romans. Byzantine Empire, completely adopted the management system and criteria of Roman civilization. Initially, the architecture and decorative motifs were faithful to the Roman tradition. Byzantine furniture, forms and decorative motifs did not differ from late Roman furniture. However, later, over time, he began to absorb oriental tastes and customs, striving more and more for luxury and pomposity. As a result, the beauty of forms and elegance faded into the background, the first place was taken by the materials used and their cost, from which the furniture was made. The furniture was less and less reminiscent of Roman, more and more frilly decorations were used, it became massive and rough. Compared to Greco-Roman furniture, a huge fascination with luxury, a glut of decorations in furnishings, destroyed the elegance of furniture. Which led to a significant simplification of the forms. Beds and tables, chests, chairs and armchairs, even for emperors and kings, had a primitive form, this is reflected in various miniatures of that time.

In the manufacture of furniture, especially for the church, emphasis was placed on valuable, expensive materials - precious metals, ivory, smalt inlays, precious stones, colored enamel. Furniture was also made entirely of metal or finished with metal or marble. At the same time, in the homes of ordinary artisans and peasants, simple furniture. Stools and chairs had the usual forms. Remained popular folding chairs. Their elements were made in the form of animals, woodcarving with various motifs and ornaments was widely used. When storing things, chests were used that did not differ in grace.

The furniture was mainly represented by products: chests (their lid was used for sitting), beds, stools and folding chairs. By the way, usually only a woman, the mistress of the house, slept on the bed, while men were assigned niches in the walls of the house for these purposes. The Byzantines also used upholstered furniture, low sofas and ottomans - borrowed from the Persians and other eastern peoples. Just like a tribute to the East in the setting of Byzantine dwellings, fabrics, especially silk, played a big role. Silk and patterned fabrics were used to make cushions for chairs and armchairs, as well as tablecloths, curtains, and bedspreads. In ornamentation on furniture, the most common were religious Christian motifs: the monogram of Christ, doves, an olive branch, peacocks, a bunch of grapes, rams, etc. Later, Greek ornaments, "animal" motifs began to be used.

The emphasis placed on excessive passion for luxury and the use of valuable materials contributed to the almost complete destruction of household items and furnishings of the Byzantine dwelling. The use of expensive materials played an important role in the capture of the city of Constantinople by the orders of the crusaders, and its fall in August 1453. Unfortunately, household items and furnishings of the Byzantine dwelling have practically not survived to this day, only individual samples of church furniture and images of furniture in miniatures have survived .

Byzantine style l did not bring anything new to the development of furniture forms. But still, thanks to its Christian orientation and the use of ornamentation with Christian motifs, it had a significant impact on the emergence and development of the styles of medieval Europe. First of all, it is a Romanesque style. Byzantine style, we are interested in as a precursor to the forms of furniture of the Christian Middle Ages.

So, let's take the next step through the stages of history, and move on to considering the development of furniture as part of everyday life in medieval Europe.

"Roman style"

On the ruins of the ancient Roman Empire, the Christian Church began to enlighten the European region, to convert the population to their faith. Monks and priests rushed to the most remote and remote corners of Europe, and the monasteries and churches formed in the wake of their activities became new cultural centers. Of the Byzantine furniture, only samples of church furniture have survived to our time. The furniture of the rest of Europe was still very simple, rude and primitive. In the period around 800 in architecture and art, the "Romanesque style" is formed. It is most widespread, only at the very beginning of the II millennium. At this time, according to the quotes of one of the thinkers of that time - "Europe has done away with antiquity and dressed in white dresses of churches." The Roman Empire perished in the whirlwind of the great migration of peoples. Europe turned out to be a vast territory inhabited by nomads and barbarian tribes. Trade and craft died out, only primitive barter remained. Slavery, as such, disappeared in feudal society, but serfdom and the most brutal exploitation of the peasants were at their maximum. Knights and feudal lords lived in fortresses. The church, its hierarchy, fully corresponded to worldly power. Science and art, the aspirations and spiritual life of a person, any of his creative activities were feasible only under her control and at the behest of the church. "Roman style" existed for almost 400 years on the European continent. He acquired his name in early XIX century, in connection with the use of elements of Roman furniture in it, but this name is deceptive. The art of this period drew nourishment from several sources: from Byzantine and the earliest Christian forms, from ancient and oriental elements, from the art of the peoples inhabiting Europe. Ultimately, as a result of these factors, in the 10th century on the European continent, in its various parts, independently of each other, the first international style appeared, sometimes distinguished by great originality in different regions.

The fundamental function of the architecture of this period was defense against anything. As a result, architecture is characterized by static and closed, severe forms. In this period, the desire for convenience and luxury is very small. Therefore, furniture craft is not in demand and is very primitive. There were few types of furniture. Various household items are made as part of subsistence farming, mainly in peasant farmsteads. The most commonly used, practical and versatile furniture of this style was the chest. It replaced many items - a table and a bench, was used as a bed, of course, it was also used for its intended purpose, for storing things. The proportions and shapes of the chests draw their origin from the ancient sarcophagus, gradually becoming more and more diverse. Initially, chests with legs and doors appeared in churches and temples, they are a kind of forerunner of modern cabinets (the chest, which was placed vertically, was the prototype of the cabinet).

During the Romanesque period(X-XII centuries) new types of furniture appeared: chairs with a high back, similar to the curule chairs of the Roman era and three-legged stools. The chairs themselves, their backs, were quite high, this indicated the nobility of the origin of the seated person. Often they were covered with paint and covered with canvas, after which plaster was applied, and then the whole structure was painted with paints. Chairs and armchairs, as well as benches, were assembled from round, chiseled bars.

Rectangular tables were made from two side panels, instead of legs connected by a beam, which were then wedged with wooden wedges. Often the tables were collapsible, and assembled at the right time. In simple houses, the table was a simple, wide board, placed on two goats. During this period, the factors of comfort and coziness of the bed are becoming increasingly important. Their forms, reproduced on the basis of Byzantine designs, resemble frames on legs and are surrounded by a lattice. Further, starting from the XII century, in all rich houses, canopies began to be used as an addition, which at that time served as protection from the cold. The canopy was attached to the bed frame or to the ceiling beam. Numerous carved or colored painted floral ornaments and motifs are used to decorate furniture. When decorating furniture, strips of iron, rows of nails or metal linings were often used. The material for the manufacture of furniture was spruce, oak and cedar. Furniture production was mainly carried out by carpenters and blacksmiths. Roman style existed for almost 400 years in Europe, it is important as a stage in the development of civilization and is of interest to historians.

"Gothick style"

In the process, albeit a slow but continuous development of social relations and art in the Middle Ages, a new style emerged that very accurately reflected the changes that had taken place in society. The new style originated in France, in the north of this state, and existed for more than 3 centuries, starting from the 13th century. He went down in history as "Gothic style". The derisive nickname "Gothic" was invented by Italian humanists during the Renaissance. The term "Gothic" - denoted everything not related to classical, antique samples. Having an ugly appearance associated with "barbarism" (the Goths are a "barbarian" Germanic tribe). Simultaneously with France, this style appeared in Belgium and Switzerland, a little later, this style developed in Germany. This style existed in Europe in the XIII - XIV centuries, and became the highest synthesis of artistic images of the Middle Ages. The main form of art in the "Gothic" was architecture, with its achievements in the construction of cathedrals. During the Gothic period, thanks to the re-invention in Europe of the two-handed saw, it became possible to obtain thin boards and use them to make lighter and more durable furniture. As a result, the design of the furniture has changed. In the manufacture of steel, they first made a frame, into which panels were then inserted - wooden parts covered with skillful carvings, paintings and gilding. And yet, the furniture of the Gothic period was quite heavy and clumsy. As a rule, it was placed along the walls. Gothic furniture has a "tense" elongated shape. Often this furniture, visually, is divided into several parts. The back of the chair resembles the lancet towers of a Gothic cathedral.

The furniture was decorated with various elements of church architecture. Later, while making wooden products, begin to use a bizarre and artsy geometrically accurate ornament. The furniture is decorated with openwork architectural and plant motifs, images of life scenes, sculptural decorations, ribbon weaving, and iron strips were also used very often. A characteristic ornament for that period is a carved ornament in the form of a carved or engraved scroll or an imitation of the texture of fabric, intricately arranged in folds. During this period, in England, bog oak carving becomes widespread. This material was also used in the manufacture of wall panels, which, when used with furniture, made up an impressive ensemble. Germany, Bohemia (Czech Republic) were famous for their carving. For Italy, France - the use of gilding and inlay, picturesque painting is typical. Furniture, the types of which appeared during this period, have been preserved for a long time in Europe, especially in the everyday life of peasants. These are armchairs, tables with underframes, beds with a wooden canopy, lari chests (caisson), supplies - cabinets that originated from vertically placed chests and were used to store dishes.

The chest remains the main type of furniture, while performing a variety of functions. The chest eventually becomes a bench chest.

Seating furniture during this period was quite varied. Benches were used throughout. Armchairs and chairs were used along with chests and benches against the walls. The chairs were with a box-shaped base with armrests and a lift-up seat. The back of the chairs was deaf and high, decorated with beautiful carvings and a small canopy. The benches were also similar, often with a canopy (canopy). The canopy of the bench was sometimes decorated with elements taken from architecture.

The bed, if it was not built into a niche in the wall, was supplied with a canopy or a wooden frame - like a closet, in the south of Europe, where the climate is milder, the canopy was replaced by a wooden structure decorated with panels, carvings, and finishing in various colors.

The tables of this period had many varieties and acquired more stable forms. The most commonly produced was a table with a protruding top and end walls, which had a deep drawer. Also, quite often there was a table with a footrest, standing on four oblique supports.

With the development of public urban life, new household habits became in demand and appeared, along with them new interior items and furniture appeared. For example, a cupboard for dishes is a “buffet”, which is a divided plank shelves on which dishes were placed. Also invented desk with a tabletop rising up, under which there is a box for writing instruments. Such desks were often used by merchants in their offices.

The materials used in the manufacture of furniture were mainly oak, walnut, pine, spruce, cedar and chestnut. Furniture manufacturing engaged in - a carpenter and a carver, the decoration was carried out by painters and gilders. Artisans during this period began to form professional workshops. In production, the quality and volume of goods produced were strictly monitored by guild communities. Carpentry has certainly changed. It has become more developed, capable of resolving the demands and needs of society in the field of furniture design. Initially, the technical skills of the masters were still rather imperfect, but over time, the shop craftsmen achieved high skill in the production of frame-and-panel furniture construction, in the manufacture of small details. They perfectly mastered difficult techniques: carving, painting, and a little later, inlays. During the period of the "Gothic style" the craft of carpenters achieved good success, which later provided the prerequisites for fulfilling the demands of society and performing more complex tasks in the following eras of history, such as the "Renaissance" style. Gothick style- timely and one of the main stages in the development of furniture styles. Thanks to this style, other types of furniture appeared, and the forgotten furniture technique of antiquity was revived. This style revived and brought the craft of carpenters to the rise and revived the original form of furniture decoration - ornament.

Renaissance furniture.

Increasing attention to the comfort and convenience of life in the period of the XIII-XIV centuries, gave impetus to the further progress of the interior and furniture. Since the XIV century, the living space of houses is increasingly filled with furniture, but the furniture still does not have significant differences compared to the furniture of the Gothic period. The main chest is still decorated with a cornice and a plinth with pilasters. The Renaissance is coming. The term "Renaissance" or "Renaissance" from fr. "Renaissance" or Italian. "Rinascimento" ("re/ri" - "again" and "nasci" - "born") - emphasizes the return of the cultural ideals of antiquity. The term arose in the 14th century to designate a new era that replaced the Middle Ages. Italy became the birthplace of the Renaissance style, where furniture production was well developed. The transition from the "Gothic" to the "Renaissance" took place very quickly, in the period of one generation, while affecting all areas of the worldview and worldview of a person. The opposition between "Renaissance" and "Gothic" was not as deep as contemporaries thought. It was the "Gothic style" that created the type of residential building that became predominant in the Renaissance.

During this period, capitalist relations begin to form, when the manufacturer is already working for the market (demand) and not for a specific consumer. An increasing number of artisans are beginning to form and maintain their own workshops, for the production and marketing of furniture in batches, and not piece by piece. In the workshops begins, the work of apprentices and apprentices is used. During the period renaissance a machine was invented that could produce thin sheets wood - plywood. The invention of this machine made it possible to develop and put into practice the veneer technique, and as a result of the reception of furniture decoration by the intarsia method (from the Italian “intarsio” - a type of inlay performed by one type of wood on another tree). The measurement and sketching of ancient Roman structures were actively carried out. It was the Roman images of antiquity that were taken as a model, since the love for splendor and luxury in the interior, inherent in the Renaissance period, could not be satisfied with the simple and rather strict forms of Greek decor. The number of types of furniture that appeared in past historical stages increased slightly during the Renaissance. A folding table with retractable supports was invented and put into practice. Cabinets and dressuaries (cupboards) appear.

Appears new type armchairs (chairs), with legs and a back in the form of round, twisted rods, with specific cubes at the junction of individual parts. The seat and back of the chairs are upholstered with tapestry or leather, using nails with large caps.

The number of functional furniture has increased- Desk, cabinets, secretary, upholstered furniture. During this period, the technology was developed and applied in production to produce large sheets of glass and mirrors. Accordingly, it becomes possible to use glass and mirrors in furniture. As a result, furniture items such as chests of drawers and glass sideboards become popular and widely distributed. Openwork chairs are made of metal, quite beautiful and elegant. Furniture is increasingly decorated with paintings (which were often done by major artists such as Uccello, Botticelli, etc.) and gilding, rich carvings in the form of plant compositions - so popular in the motives of the ancient Romans. The decor is dominated by inlay, intarsia and stone mosaics. Flat surfaces are inlaid with ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoiseshell.

The appearance of the furniture is emphasized by architectural elements - pilasters, columns, friezes and capitals, arcades and niches. Furniture details in the form of ram heads, lion paws, various grotesque masks and other attributes inherent in antique furniture are widely used. During the Renaissance carpentry has reached a very high artistic and aesthetic level. The carpenter had to have an excellent feel for the design and shape of the furniture, be technically prepared and be able to draw sketches and drawings.

For various regions and large cities of Italy, different directions in the production and processing of materials are approved, types of furniture characteristic of the region are produced. In Siena, Bologna and Rome, furniture was produced with its own decorative carvings. The regions, Lombardy and Venice are famous for their geometric mosaics in light or ebony and ivory. Such a mosaic was called the "Chertosa Mosaic", after the name of the Certosa-Pavia monastery, located near Milan. In Liguria and Genoa, credens were produced, with doors and many drawers, bureau cabinets covered with beautiful embossed carvings. Furniture renaissance was quite diverse, but still in everyday life, the most used types of furniture were: Chest chest "cassone" (cassone). The main purpose, which was - storage, transportation of things, use as a bench. The chests, which have a rectangular box shape, have curved, chiseled legs, the walls of the chest become convex, they are finished with carvings. Later, from such a chest, the ancestor of the sofa develops - a bench-chest with armrests and a back - "cassapanka". It was intended for honored guests.

Tables were mainly of two types: with a rectangular top fixed on four massive supports, or with a round (polygonal) top with one central support.

Two types of chairs were widespread - on two carved boards with polygonal seats and ordinary ones, on four legs. Beds - become low, without a canopy, with the addition of carved columns in the corners.

The main and most common material for the production of furniture is walnut wood. It is easy to handle, has a beautiful texture and is quite durable. In the production of furniture, the performers often sought to emphasize the natural texture and color of wood, and therefore the color scheme of Renaissance furniture was distinguished by restraint. Gothic furniture, one might say, was unlucky, due to the ignorance and intolerance of the early Christians, to everything pagan. A completely different state of affairs developed in the Renaissance - a family connection with this era can be traced in almost all subsequent styles of furniture, including today's retro style. It must be said that we live in a macro-epoch, the beginning of which was laid by the masters of the Renaissance.

Note

Materials used

Roman style

The Romanesque style (from Latin - Roman) was the first artistic system of the Middle Ages, and dominated for about 400 years, covering most of Europe. During the reign of Charlemagne, around 800, a church and a palace were built in Aachen. Here, in the architecture of the era of the Carolingian dynasty, the Romanesque style is born. It became widespread only at the beginning of the 2nd millennium and existed until the end of the 12th century. Echoes of its forms can be traced in the folk furniture of many nations and at the end of the 19th century.

The style was based on Byzantine art, in addition, the influence of ancient forms and the art of the barbarian peoples affected the formation of the style. It got its name in the 19th century. due to the use of Roman elements in it.

main function Romanesque architecture was defensive, so it is characterized by static and heavy closed forms.

During this period, the bulk of the population, the peasants, had almost no furniture as such, constant wars and robberies did not allow them to improve their homes. In the conditions of subsistence farming, furniture for their own needs was made by the peasants themselves. Most often, these were benches and hewn chumps on which they sat around the hearth. The main manufacturers of furniture for churches and castles were blacksmiths and carpenters. As a rule, Romanesque furniture has a simple design and a rough massive shape. Cabinets made of poorly planed boards were held up with forged iron plates. This technique originated in France. Columns, profile cornices, arcades appear in late Romanesque furniture.

The first place among the furniture was occupied by a chest, which played the role of a wardrobe, table, bed, chair and travel suitcase. During trips, noble people transported their property in chests. The first chests were hollowed out from tree trunks, as among primitive peoples. Then they began to be made from raw boards with a gable lid, often decorated with carvings in the form of wedge-shaped notches. Very often the chests were decorated with forged plates, which were also fasteners.

Early chest form with heavy forged overlays

Chest on legs with forged lining

French chest decorated with spiral overlays. 13th century

The temples used higher chests with short legs and doors, the front side was decorated with carvings.

Chest on legs with false arcades. 12th century

The chest placed vertically was the prototype of the wardrobe. Rosettes made with flat carving, griffins on the sides of the pediments, massive strips of iron edging served as decoration for the Romanesque wardrobe.

Wrought iron wardrobe

1- Standing cabinet with carved rosettes. 12th century

2- Standing cabinet with slotted dragons and a carved rosette, bound with iron strips.

Later, cabinets with architectural elements appeared.

Wardrobe from the sacristy of the temple. 13th century

Massive benches or chests were used as seating furniture, separate chairs were relied only on the heads of noble families. The chair had a footrest so as not to put them on the cold floor. The chairs had straight or chiseled legs and straight backs. Upholstery was not applied. Supplemented with armrests, chairs turned into armchairs.

Turned armchair. 13th century

Carved chair. 12th century

Armchair carved Norwegian work. XIII-XIV centuries

Furniture in most cases was covered with a layer of paint in lively colors in order to hide the defects in the joints. raw wooden frame they covered it with canvas, covered it with a layer of plaster or chalk, and in some places painted this primer, creating a kind of painting. In the late Romanesque style, wood carving and fine decorative iron fittings are added to this.

Beds. The beds were a box with a notch in the middle part of the side wall. Rack legs ended with chiseled elements. A high wall with a small wooden canopy was arranged at the head.

Wooden bed from Tyrol

Starting from the XII century. under the influence of the oriental tent structure, canopies appeared above the beds, which were attached to the ceiling beams or to a special frame.

Romanesque tables had a simple design. In the early period, they represented a wide tabletop mounted on two goats, the tables were collapsible. Later tables stand on two massive shields fastened with one or two massive bars. The ends of the bars go beyond the aisles of the shields and are wedged. decorative design reduced to the curly shape of the side shields.

Rectangular table with one leg

Rectangular table with two legs

More complex in design are tables with a round and octagonal top, which is installed on a carpentry underframe of complex shape.

Round table

Octagonal table

For the manufacture of furniture, local species were used: pine, spruce, oak.

As decorative elements used: forged iron plates, rows of forged nails, painting, flat carving, architectural motifs. The ornaments used plant motifs (stylized leaves, climbing plants, clusters), geometric shapes, zigzag lines, figures of people and animals, mystical animals.

Literature:

1. Bartashevich A.A., Aldanova N.I., Romanovsky A.M. History of interior and furniture. Educational / Under the general. Ed. A.A. Bartashevich. - Minsk: UE "Technoprint", 2002. - 284 p.

2. Kes D. Styles of furniture. - Budapest, 1979.

3. Sobolev N.N. styles in furniture. M.: "SVAROG and K", 2000.

4. Cherepakhina A.N. History of artistic processing of wood products: Proc. For PTU. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Higher. school, 1993. - 176 p.: ill.

After the decline of ancient culture, art for a long time submits to religion. Byzantine architecture is associated with religious and temple construction. Temples were the main architectural structure, were built everywhere and different sizes, got off richly. Antique culture is gradually being forgotten, and stagnation has set in in the improvement of the productive forces. The old was destroyed, the new was not built, the architecture became primitive.

The fragmentation of the warring feudal principalities caused massive fortification. Castles-fortresses were surrounded by walls, city life froze, and the centers of culture moved to monasteries. The architecture of the fat is heavy and closed.

In interior design, the Byzantines continued the traditions of the Romans. The forms of furniture were simplified compared to Greek and Roman. The artistic effect was achieved by an abundance of precious metals.

The first artistic system of the Middle Ages, which covered most of Europe, was the Romanesque style. The most important element of the architectural compositions of this style were massive walls, the heaviness of which was emphasized by narrow loophole windows.

During this period, the concept of "furniture" in the modern sense did not exist, since constant wars and robberies did not create conditions for home improvement. In the fortresses of the feudal lords, residential towers were equipped for housing - high, semi-dark halls, fenced with stone walls. Somewhat later, wooden sheathing appeared. The living quarters were narrow and gloomy, without luxurious decoration.

During the Middle Ages, furniture, like other items, was made roughly. The designs were primitive, the forms bulky and massive. For example, cabinets were made from raw thick boards without the use of knitting, they were held with the help of wrought iron linings. The main tools in the manufacture of furniture were an ax and a plow, and the performers were a carpenter and a blacksmith.

The most significant item was the chest, which was later replaced by a wardrobe. Known table with vertical planes as supports. For sitting, benches, tripod stools, wooden chairs with a high back were used.

Furniture was decorated with forged overlays and nails, as well as colored painted ornaments. Architectural motifs were used freely and randomly in furniture. Ornaments were applied haphazardly and often without respect for proportions and relationship with the product. The paints used, like the shapes of the furniture themselves, were simple and crude.

Despite the primitiveness, the features of the Romanesque style turned out to be tenacious in folk furniture, which was freed from excess material, and its proportions were slightly lightened.

The intensive growth of cities, the development of crafts, trade, the formation of new social relations found their artistic expression in the heyday of the Gothic style (XII - XV centuries), whose birthplace is France. In Gothic, feudal-church influence was clearly manifested.

On the example of the forms of architecture and household items of the Gothic period, one can trace the unity of the style of the objective world. A costume, like architecture, has its own tectonics and constructive clarity. characteristic feature The silhouette of the Gothic costume is elongated proportions and vertical lines, corresponding to the skyward architecture. Clocks and furniture are also decorated in this style, which was due to the need to match their forms to the same Gothic interior.

In the early Gothic period, furnishings were still heavy and clumsy; box knitting remained at the heart of the furniture design. But in terms of the variety of objects, and in terms of the technique of execution, the early Gothic furniture is already more perfect than the furniture of the early Middle Ages. The invention at the beginning of the 14th century contributed to the further improvement of furniture, the creation of its new forms and types. two-handed saw, the use of spiked joints and frame-paneled knitting (known to the ancient Romans, but forgotten). Instead of a carpenter and a blacksmith, furniture began to be made by a carpenter, carver, painter, and gilder.

With the improvement of furniture production technology, products are given harmony and simplicity of form. During the period of Gothic prosperity, the houses of feudal lords and wealthy citizens were richly furnished. Traditional chests, various cabinets, supplies, armchairs, chairs, beds are made.

Gothic style had common features in various countries: accentuation of verticals, a certain geometric silhouette of an object, articulation of faces, rich carving, etc. The ornament was mainly of three types - openwork, leafy and ribbon weaving (the so-called linen folds, or napkins). The ornament was carved in low relief, which corresponded to the types of wood used (pine and oak). With the use of a board with a cut ornament, which was superimposed on another, background one, the ornament deepened and became more embossed. The frame was decorated with arrows, turrets, columns, etc. In addition to carving, painting was widely used to decorate products.