Clay is considered the basis for pottery. Mixed with water, it creates a pasty mass suitable for further processing. Raw materials of natural origin, has differences depending on the places of formation. One type can be used in its pure form, others require sifting and mixing. The result is clay for ceramics - a material quite suitable for the manufacture of various products.

Structurally, clay consists of small crystals that form a clay-forming silicate mineral - kaolinite. The composition of clay for ceramics includes water, oxides of silicon and aluminum.

red clay

In nature, this pottery clay has a greenish-brown tint due to iron oxide, which accounts for five to eight percent of the total. During the heat treatment, depending on the temperature regime or the type of furnace, the clay becomes red or whitish. The material is easily kneaded, withstands heating up to 1,100 degrees. The raw material is highly elastic, excellent for modeling small sculptures or for working with clay plates.

white ceramic

Deposits of this kind are found everywhere. With sufficient moisture, the clay is light gray, the burning process gives it white shade or ivory. The main qualities of the material are elasticity and translucency, since there is no iron oxide in the composition. It is used for the manufacture of dishes, tiles, sanitary ware, clay crafts.

A variety of raw materials containing an increased amount of white alumina - majolica. Obzhin it is performed at low temperatures, after which the surface is covered with a glaze containing tin. Majolica ceramics has a second name - earthenware, since for the first time this material was used for the manufacture of steel dishes at a factory for the production of earthenware products.

Sandstone Clay

This material is especially suitable for work on a special machine for the manufacture of pottery. The composition contains loam and silica impurities. The second name of the raw material is "pot clay". After firing at temperatures exceeding 1,000 degrees, the clay becomes denser and completely impermeable. It is used for the production of dishes and decorative crafts. Color shades are varied - grayish, beige, ivory, brown.

Clay for porcelain production

The composition of this clay includes kaolin, feldspar and quartz. With sufficient moisture, the clay has a light gray tint, firing at a temperature of 1,300 - 1,400 degrees makes it white. The raw material is elastic, working with such material involves high technical costs, for this reason it is recommended to use ready-made forms.

Fire-clay

This type of clay is distinguished by the most valuable qualities. Such a rock is obtained by firing kaolin (white clay) under the influence of a temperature of at least 1,000 degrees. Heat treatment gives the material additional thermal stability. The heat treatment process evaporates liquid and various impurities from the clay material. In a special oven, clay rock is given the strength properties of stone, which is then crushed to get fireclay. The raw material is used in the production of refractory bricks, for laying furnaces and decorative elements.

Criteria for choosing the composition of clay for work

There are many factors to consider when choosing the right ceramic clay for the job:

• what way of working you will use and what you want to get in the end - a sculpture, a decorative ornament or a functional thing. If you plan to work on a potter's wheel or hand molding, you should stop at pottery;
• determine which shade you need. The color of the material depends on its constituent components. Choosing suitable option, it is recommended to check the probes for temperature regime at which firing is planned, since the shade of the clay may change after heat treatment. To make the right choice, you need to plan the decoration of the product in advance;
• Before choosing the type of clay for ceramics, you should decide what temperature you will set during firing. There are materials that cannot withstand a regime of more than 1,000 degrees and begin to melt. It follows that you need to select a mass that can be fired in your oven.

Before you find the best option, you will have to try a large number of types of clays from different manufacturers. An experienced master prefers to work with several types designed for a variety of tasks. Some experienced professionals create suitable clay with their own hands or improve finished raw materials.

Stages of preparing clay for work

In order for clay to become suitable for making ceramics, it has to go through several stages of preparation.

Screening

To do this, the clay must be spread out in small lumps on the flooring of wooden material, dry under the sun. AT winter time the material dries perfectly in the cold, if it is laid out under a canopy and snow is excluded. Clay preparation in small quantities can be done in a warm room near the stove or radiators. The feature of fast drying is that the clay must be divided into small pieces.

Dried raw materials are poured into a wooden box with thick walls, broken by a rammer. The resulting dust is sifted through a sieve, removing pebbles, chips, blades of grass and large grains of sand.

For modeling, the powder is kneaded according to the principle of preparing dough for bread, water is added in small portions, the mass is thoroughly mixed. Some of the clay powder is kept in a dry state if it is necessary to give the mass a density, and there is no longer time for drying or evaporation. In this case, the powder is poured into the clay mass, kneading is repeated.

elutriation

At this stage, the clay is cleaned, it acquires plasticity and fat content. Such a procedure is most often subjected to low-plastic clay raw materials containing a large amount of sand. For elutriation, you will need high dishes, for example, a bucket.

Part of the clay is poured with three parts of water, left overnight. In the morning, the contents are thoroughly stirred to obtain a homogeneous solution, which is left until completely settled. When the top of the water brightens, it is carefully drained with a hose.

For such a procedure, there is a more convenient method invented by ancient masters. To do this, use a wooden tub, in which holes are arranged at a certain level, previously closed with corks.

When settling the clay solution, the pebbles and heavy grains of sand that are in its composition first reach the bottom, then the clay begins to settle. The clarified water is gradually drained through the holes, removing the plugs from them one by one until all the liquid has drained.

To speed up the settling process, Epsom salts are added to the clay solution (a pinch per bucket).

After the water is drained, the liquid clay is scooped out, trying not to touch the bottom layer of sediment. The solution is poured into a basin or a wide box, exposed to the sun so that moisture quickly evaporates from it. When the clay begins to dry out, it is recommended to periodically mix it with a wooden spatula. The material, which has become like a thick dough and does not stick to hands, is covered with polyethylene and stored until use.

interruption

The procedure is applied before sculpting to remove air bubbles from the clay and improve uniformity. Interruption is considered indispensable when the clay at the initial stages is poorly cleaned and contains small impurities.

Processing begins with the process of rolling the kolobok, which is then thrown onto the workbench with force. The workpiece is slightly flattened, takes the form of a loaf. It is cut into two parts with a potter's string, the upper half is again strongly thrown onto the table with a cut, they do the same with the second part, without turning it over. The glued halves are cut again and the throwing procedure is repeated.

Hollow areas are destroyed sharply, air bubbles are pushed out. The state of homogeneity of the raw material depends on the number of cuts. With this processing, you can use a carpenter's plow or a large knife.

Further, the clay lump is compacted, pressed against the surface of the table, thin plates are cut from it. All impurities that fall under the blade are thrown aside. In such a procedure, the purity of the material and its uniformity depend on the thinness of the plates. Having finished planing, the clay plates are again assembled into a single lump and compacted to a monolithic state. The plating process is repeated again.

Remin

This is the final DIY clay preparation process for making pottery. A lump is taken, rolled into a roller, bent and kneaded to its original state. Promine operations are repeated several times in the specified sequence. If the material is very dry, before the next change, it is abundantly sprayed with water spray.

Storage Features

The qualitative state of the material is determined by the conditions of its preservation. The highest requirements are placed on the quality of clay, which is intended for the manufacture of artistic ceramic products.

Raw materials entering the warehouse are packed in bags and stacked on high pallets, the height of the stacks should not exceed two meters. Such laying conditions are necessary in order to prevent contamination of the feedstock. Each type of clay and incoming batches of material must be stored separately to prevent mixing.

If it is not possible to store clay indoors, it is not stored on concrete platforms.

Subject to all the requirements for storage and preparation of clay raw materials for work, you can get an excellent material for the manufacture of ceramic products.

The first ceramic products appeared long before people learned how to smelt metal. Ancient pots and jugs that archaeologists find to this day are proof of this. It should be noted that the ceramic material has unique properties which make it in some areas simply irreplaceable. Let's take a look at the features of ceramics with you, talk about its production and characteristics.

General information

Get ceramic products by sintering clay and mixtures with organic additives. Sometimes oxides of inorganic compounds are used. The first such products appeared 5,000 years ago. During this time, the production technology has improved significantly, and today high-strength ceramic products are available to us. They are used in construction for facade cladding, floors, walls, etc.

There are ceramic products with a dense and porous shard. The key difference between the two is that the dense shard is waterproof. These are porcelain products, floor tiles, etc. Porous shard - tiles, drainage pipes and more.

History of occurrence

The word "ceramics" in Greek means "clay". Naturally, some kind of mixture was used to make any product. They added to it necessary materials depending on what you need to get in the end. At first, by hand, and somewhat later on a special machine, a special shape was given to a clay product. Subsequently, ceramic products are fired in kilns at high temperatures.

Many countries used their own. This applies to pottery masses, painting and glazing. Egypt is considered the first state that has achieved significant development of this industry. It was the production of ceramics there that was established in the first place. Products were made of rough and poorly mixed clay, but later the technology improved. Today, yellow clay bricks are found that were allegedly used in the construction of the pyramids of Memphis.

The advent of porcelain

For a long time in China they used such material as jade. It was beautiful, but rather fragile and difficult to handle. After many years of searching, a solution was found. Porcelain is easier to manufacture. However, even here there were nuances. For example, mica and tsvaoka, which were found in "porcelain stones", were ground into a fine powder and stored for more than 10 years. This was done in order to make the material as flexible as possible. The first porcelain items in China were tall and elongated vessels. They had a polished surface and a blue or dark green color. The latter were the most valued.

Today it is believed that China is the state where porcelain was most widely distributed. This is true, although it was also popular in Europe, but it appeared there later, and its production developed longer.

Main types of ceramics

Currently, clay products have a wide classification. So, pottery objects can be divided into two main groups:

• unglazed ceramics (terracotta and pottery);
• glazed (majolica, chamotte).

Terracotta is Italian for "baked earth". Products are made of colored clay and have a porous structure. Terracotta is used to make vases, dishes, as well as toys and tiles.

Pottery, on the other hand, is more difficult to process. In order to make it waterproof, polishing is necessary. Further, the product is subjected to staining. To do this, it is left in a hot oven in smoke until it cools completely. Today, many types of ceramics, in particular pottery, are extremely popular. It is used in everyday life for storing milk, bulk materials or as a decor.

As for the second type - glazed ceramics, porcelain and faience are the most popular here. The first is more expensive and labor-intensive in production, the second is practical and cheap. They differ from each other in that porcelain products contain less clay and more special additives. In addition, porcelain is translucent in the light, unlike earthenware.

About refractories

Products made from clay mixtures are refractory. Depending on the purpose, they can withstand temperatures from 1,300 to 2,000 degrees Celsius, and even higher. A special kiln for firing ceramics is used. are mostly used in the metallurgical process. There they are used to design blast furnaces and units.

It is quite logical to say that with increasing temperature, the strength of the refractory is not lost, but, on the contrary, increases. This is achieved due to the presence of refractory oxides, silicates and borides in the composition. They are used almost everywhere where high-temperature processes take place. Very often they are found molded, that is, in the form of a specific product, for example, a brick. Rarely, it is necessary to use unshaped refractories in powder form.

Ceramics in construction

The same applies to ceramic tiles, which, despite the appearance of polymers, are not losing ground. It is still used for equipping rooms with high humidity and temperature. Expanded clay occupies the first place among facing materials.

Over the past few years, the production of hollow ceramic blocks and bricks has increased by 4%. Their production requires minimal changes in brick plants and factories, while the costs pay off in the first year of sales. Abroad, hollow ceramics has long taken a leading position and is sold much better than ordinary bricks.

Special ceramic materials

These products include sanitary and sewer pipes. The first are divided into three large groups:

• from hard faience (porous shard);
• sanitary porcelain (sintered shard);
• semi-porcelain (half-baked shard).

The main requirements put forward for sanitary ware are resistance to mechanical damage, heat resistance. The recipe must be followed in strict order, the same applies to technology. Only professional and high quality raw materials are used. Sanitary products include sinks, toilet bowls, bathtubs, radiators, etc. The right way product quality checks - light tapping on the case. The sound should be clear and free of rattles. This indicates firing at the correct temperature and no cracks.

As for the sewer pipes, they must have a dense sintered shard. are issued with a diameter of 150-600 mm. Usually glazed both inside and out. Such products are characterized by high resistance to aggressive environments and wandering electric current. They are moderately priced, making them more affordable.

Physical and chemical properties of ceramics

As noted above, all products can be divided into two broad groups: dense and porous. Dense have a water absorption coefficient of less than 5%, porous - 5% or more. The last group includes the following products: clay bricks (porous and hollow), hollow facing tiles, roof tiles. Dense ceramic products - road bricks and floor tiles. In the sanitary industry, both porous and dense ceramics are found.

Speaking about the physicochemical properties, it is impossible not to note the key disadvantage of ceramics. It consists in increased fragility compared to other materials. Nevertheless, high availability and versatility make this material one of the most popular in many industries and even in Everyday life person. Modern technologies make it possible to obtain a smooth surface immediately after firing. If it is required to achieve a certain color, then iron or cobalt oxides are added.

Features of the microstructure

When heated, the ceramics gradually turns into a liquid state. It is distinguished by a large number of simple and complex compounds. On cooling, crystallization occurs. It manifests itself in the precipitation of pure crystals, which increase in size. When the mass hardens, a microconglomerate is formed in the structure. In it, mullite grains are cemented by a hardened mass. It is worth paying your attention that the oxygen atoms form a kind of matrix. It contains small metal atoms that are replaced in the voids between them. Consequently, the microstructure is dominated by ionic and somewhat less covalent bonds. Chemical stability and stability are achieved through the presence of strong and durable chemical compounds.

As noted above, the use of ceramic materials is limited. This is due to the fact that the crystals are imperfect. Crystal lattices have many defects: atomic-sized pores, deformations, etc. All this significantly impairs strength. However, there are some nuances here. For example, if the technology is observed during the manufacture of a particular type of ceramic, it is quite possible to achieve good results in strength. For this, it is extremely important to observe the temperature regime and the duration of the firing of the product.

Characteristics and properties of clay

Clay is a sedimentary rock that, regardless of composition and structure, when mixed with water, forms a plastic material. After firing - a stone-like body. Usually the mixture is dense, mostly consists of aluminosilicates. Quite often, rocks such as quartz, spar, as well as hydroxides and carbonates of calcium, magnesium, and titanium compounds are also found in clays.

Kaolins are the purest clays known today. Almost entirely composed of kaolinite. After roasting get White color. The plasticity required for processing is achieved due to the presence of fine grains of clay matter (0.005 mm) in the structure. Naturally, the more in the composition of such a substance, the higher the plasticity, and vice versa.

The main ceramic properties of clays include:

• plasticity - deformation without breaking the integrity;
• connectivity;
• air and fire shrinkage;
• fire resistance.

Today, various thinning and enriching additives are used, which allow changing the properties of the material in one direction or another. This leads to the fact that ceramic products become even more in demand and affordable.

Technological scheme of production

The characteristics of ceramic materials indicate the possibility of using clays in various industries industry. This led to the fact that there was a great demand, and consequently, the supply increased. Production plants in most cases work according to the same scheme:

• extraction of raw materials;
• preparation;
• shaping and drying;
• firing and release of the product.

To minimize costs, factories are usually built in the immediate vicinity of the clay deposit. Mining is carried out in an open way, that is, with an excavator. The next step is to prepare the mass. Raw materials are enriched, crushed and mixed until a homogeneous mass. The formation of the future ceramic product is carried out by wet and dry methods. In the first case, the mass is moistened up to 25%, and in the second - no more than 12%.

Previously, natural drying was often used. However, the result depended largely on the weather. Therefore, in rain or cold, the plant stands still. Therefore, special dryers (gas) are used. The most critical step is firing. It is extremely important to comply with the technology, which is quite complex. Much also depends on the cooling of the ceramics. A sharp temperature drop is not allowed, which can lead to a curvature of the plane. Only then can you sell ceramic materials. The production technology, as you can see, is not simple, it consists of several stages. Each of them must be followed. If this does not happen, then on the shelves of the store we can meet marriage.

A little about the disadvantages of ceramics

As already mentioned, the composition of ceramic materials is imperfect. In particular, this affects the strength of the clay product. Any mechanical damage can manifest itself as a chip, crack, etc. This is the key disadvantage. But there are other factors that hinder the widespread dissemination of the material we are considering. One of them is high cost. For example, ceramic tiles for roofing country house- a beautiful solution from an aesthetic point of view, but such a pleasure will be very expensive.

At the same time, its appearance will last no more than 5 years with proper care. In the future, fading occurs, the appearance of moss on the surface, etc. Along with this, fragility and brittleness lead to the fact that any mechanical damage can lead to leakage of the roof, and few people will like it. Of course, modern ceramic material looks very impressive, which is achieved due to the wide texture of colors and high quality workmanship. But it is still expensive, which often makes you think about the appropriateness of such a choice.

Summing up

We have considered the basic properties of ceramic materials. Based on all of the above, we can conclude that such products have some uniqueness. It lies in the fact that in the absence of mechanical damage, they will last a very, very long time. In addition, ceramic material for casting liquid metal in factories is also indispensable, because it can withstand high temperatures.

As for everyday life, ceramics are very useful here. Special dishes for cooking in the oven, although they have changed their appearance over the years, are still made from this material. Porcelain, despite its high cost, has an elegant look and is simply pleasing to the eye. This also applies to faience, which, if properly executed, is difficult to distinguish from porcelain.

In any case, a ceramic material must be used. This is primarily due to the large reserves of natural clay. There is really a lot of it, and every year more and more new quarries for the extraction of this natural resource are being developed. The second important factor is ecological cleanliness. Previously, people did not have the opportunity to use any harmful additives to improve the strength characteristics of the product. Today the situation has changed, albeit not too critically. Ceramic tiles, unlike synthetic materials, are not harmful to health. This also applies to ceramic dishes, which, compared to plastic, especially if the latter is heated, do no harm at all.

Russian Federation

Ministry of Education and Science of the Chelyabinsk Region

Vocational School No. 130

By discipline: "Materials Science"

Subject: Ceramic Materials

Completed by: student group 28 Beloborodov A.

Checked by: Teacher Dolin A.M.

Yuzhno-Uralsk 2008

Introduction

1. General information about ceramic materials

2. Raw materials for the production of ceramic materials and products

2.1 Clay materials

2.2 Skinny materials

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

AT modern world Ceramic materials and products are widely used in construction. This is due to the high strength, significant durability, decorativeness of many types of ceramics, as well as the prevalence of raw materials in nature.

The purpose of this work is to consider and study ceramic materials. In accordance with the goal, it is possible to single out the tasks of the work: to study general information about ceramic materials: the concept, types, properties of ceramic materials and products; raw materials for the production of ceramic materials and products: clay materials, thinning materials.

Ceramic products have different properties, which are determined by the composition of the feedstock, the methods of its processing, as well as the firing conditions - the gaseous medium, temperature and duration. The material (i.e. the body) of which ceramic products are composed is called a ceramic shard in ceramics technology.

1. General information about ceramic materials

Ceramics are materials and products made by molding and firing clays. "Keramos" - in ancient Greek meant pottery clay, as well as baked clay products. In ancient times, dishes were made from clay by firing, and later (about 5000 years ago) they began to make bricks, and then tiles.

Great strength, significant durability, decorativeness of many types of ceramics, as well as the prevalence of raw materials in nature, led to wide application ceramic materials and products in construction. The durability of ceramic materials can be seen in the example of the Moscow Kremlin, whose walls were built almost 500 years ago.

Among raw powdered materials is clay, which is mainly used in the production of building ceramics. It mostly contains impurities that affect its color and thermal properties. The least amount of impurities contains clay with a high content of the mineral kaolinite and therefore called kaolin, which has an almost white color. In addition to kaolinite clays of different colors and shades, montmorillonite, hydromicaceous clays are used.

In addition to clay, the powdered materials used, which are the main components of ceramic products, also include some other mineral substances of natural origin - quartzites, magnesites, chromium iron ore.

For technical ceramics (more commonly referred to as special), powders in the form of pure oxides, artificially obtained by special cleaning, are used, for example, oxides of aluminum, magnesium, calcium, zirconium, thorium dioxide, etc. They make it possible to obtain products with high melting points (up to above), which is important in reactive technology, radio engineering ceramics. Materials of higher refractoriness are made on the basis of carbides, nitrides, borides, silicides, sulfides and other metal compounds, as well as without clay raw materials. Some of them have melting points up to 3500 - 4000°C, especially from the group of carbides.

Of great practical interest are cermets, which usually consist of metal and ceramic parts with appropriate properties. Refractories of variable composition have been recognized. For these materials, one surface is represented by a pure refractory metal, such as tungsten, and the other by a refractory ceramic material, such as beryllium oxide. Between the surfaces in the cross section, the composition gradually changes, which increases the resistance of the material to thermal shock.

For building ceramics, as noted above, clay is quite suitable, which is a common, cheap and well-studied raw material in nature. In combination with some additional materials, various products are obtained from it in the ceramic industry and in a wide range. They are classified according to a number of criteria. According to the structural purpose, wall, facade, floor, finishing, flooring, roofing products, sanitary products, road materials and products, for underground utilities, refractory products, heat-insulating materials and products, chemically resistant ceramics are distinguished.

According to the structural feature, all products are divided into two groups: porous and dense. Porous ceramic products absorb more than 5% by weight of water (ordinary brick, tiles, drainage pipes). On average, the water absorption of porous products is 8 - 20% by weight or 15 - 35% by volume. Dense products are accepted with a water absorption of less than 5% by weight, and they are practically waterproof, for example, floor tiles, sewer pipes, acid-resistant bricks and tiles, road bricks, sanitary china. Most often it is 2 - 4% by weight or 4 - 8% by volume. Absolutely dense ceramic products are not available, since the evaporating mixing water introduced into the clay dough always leaves a certain amount of micro- and macropores.

According to the purpose in construction, the following groups of ceramic materials and products are distinguished:

wall materials(ordinary clay brick, hollow and light, hollow ceramic stones);

roofing materials and materials for floors (tiles, ceramic hollow products);

facing materials for exterior and interior cladding (facing bricks and stones, facade ceramic slabs, small-sized tiles);

materials for floors (tiles);

materials for special purposes (road, sanitary construction, chemically resistant, materials for underground utilities, in particular pipes, heat-insulating, refractory, etc.);

aggregates for lightweight concrete (claydite, agloporite).

Wall materials have reached the greatest development, and along with a general increase in production, special attention is paid to an increase in the production of efficient products (hollow bricks and stones, ceramic blocks and panels, etc.). It is also envisaged to expand the production of facade ceramics, especially for industrial decoration of buildings, glazed tiles for interior cladding, floor tiles, sewer and drainage pipes, sanitary construction products, artificial porous aggregates for concrete.

According to the melting temperature, ceramic products and original clays are divided into fusible (with a melting point below 1350°C), refractory (with a melting point of 1350-1580°C) and refractory (over 1580°C). Above, examples of products and raw materials of higher refractoriness (with a melting point in the range of 2000-4000X) used for technical (special) purposes were also noted.

Distinctive feature of all ceramic products and materials is their relatively high strength, but low deformability. Brittleness most often refers to the negative properties of building ceramics. It has high chemical resistance and durability, and the shape and dimensions of ceramic products usually meet established standards or specifications.

Liquid ceramic heat-insulating materials are currently presented on the Russian market, which find their consumer due to a wide range of applications and ease of use at low labor costs. Since the proposed materials are mainly produced abroad, they are expensive, which limits the possibility of their mass use in construction, energy and housing and communal services, etc. Whereas domestic analogues often leave much to be desired, and with their "quality" they cause negative and bias in the end user towards liquid ceramic heat-insulating materials.

2. Raw materials for the production of ceramic materials and products

Raw materials used for the manufacture of ceramic products can be divided into plastic clay (kaolins and clays) and lean (chamotte, quartz, slag, burnable additives). To lower the sintering temperature, flux is sometimes added to the clay. Kaolin and clays are united by a common name - clay materials.

ceramic construction roofing cladding

2.1 Clay materials

Kaolins. Kaolins were formed in nature from feldspars and other aluminosilicates not contaminated with iron oxides. They consist mainly of the mineral kaolinite. After firing, their inherent white or almost white color is preserved.

Clay. Clays are called sedimentary rocks, which are fine-earth mineral masses, capable of forming plastic dough with water, regardless of their mineralogical and chemical composition, which, after firing, turns into a waterproof and durable stone-like body.

Clays consist of a close mixture of various minerals, among which the most common are kaolinite, montmorillonite and hydromicaceous. Representatives of kaolinite minerals are kaolinite and halloysite. The montmorillonite group includes montmorillonite, beidellite and their ferruginous varieties. Hydromicas are mainly a product of varying degrees of hydration of micas.

Along with these minerals, clays contain quartz, feldspar, sulfur pyrites, hydrates of iron and aluminum oxides, calcium and magnesium carbonates, titanium and vanadium compounds. Such impurities affect both the technology of ceramic products and their properties. For example, finely distributed calcium carbonate and iron oxides reduce the fire resistance of clays. If there are large grains and grains of calcium carbonate in the clay, then during firing, more or less large inclusions of lime are formed from them, which hydrates in air with an increase in volume (dutik), which causes cracking or destruction of products. Vanadium compounds cause the appearance of greenish deposits (efflorescence) on the brick, which spoils the appearance of the facades.

Ceramics is one of the main materials used in industry and everyday life. It is called the third industrial material, along with metals and polymers. This section presents the types of ceramics and considers the technology of manufacturing ceramic products. Particular attention is paid to the methods of molding ceramic products.

b HISTORY OF CERAMICS

Ceramics was the first artificial material created by man long before the production of glass and metal, the production of plastics and composites. Ceramic products, unlike wooden and metal ones, are durable and resistant to changes in natural conditions, so archaeologists study the history of disappeared cities and countries using ceramic shards. Archaeological excavations carried out on the territory of many states provide extensive material for studying this most interesting area of ​​​​human creative activity.

The invention of ceramics was helped by the unique properties of clay minerals, which allowed primitive people to mold vessels and figurines from wet clay, which, after being fired in a fire, gained strength. (As the Bible says, the first man on Earth - Adam - was also created by God from clay.)

The presence of clay, an easily accessible natural material, led to the rapid and widespread development of ceramic craft at the very dawn of human history, during the period of the primitive communal system. Appearing in the Mesolithic era, it has already developed in the Neolithic era.

The first ceramic products were vessels for water and food with thick walls and a porous shard; for ease of installation in the ground, the bottom of such a vessel was round or conical. Crushed shells and crushed granite were added to clay to give strength during firing. According to fingerprints, scientists have established that the oldest ceramic vessels were made by women. Such vessels were molded from bundles and decorated with stamps in the form of pits, stripes, grooves of various shapes. Depending on the clay used, the items ranged in color from terracotta to black. Later, colored clays with a predominantly red, white, yellowish or dark color began to be used for decoration, covering certain parts of the pattern (engobes) with them. In some cultures, they began to use burnishing - smoothing the surface.

The first glazed products appeared in the 4th-3rd millennium BC, in the regions of the Near and Middle East. Ceramic products (colored glazed bricks and facing tiles that make up a monumental panel) were used to decorate palace and religious buildings. The resulting glaze contained many alkalis and was fritted.

The most important factor in the improvement of ceramic craftsmanship was the invention of the potter's wheel (4th millennium BC), the use of which dramatically increased labor productivity and improved the quality of products. Pottery began to be done by men.

In ancient Egypt, vessels were made from a coarse mass, finely chopped straw was added to the clay - to reduce the viscosity of the clay, speed up drying and prevent large shrinkage of the product. Vessel molding severe forms in the Neolithic and predynastic periods, it was carried out by hand, later a round mat, the predecessor of the potter's wheel, was used as a rotating stand. They also began to use molding on rope blanks. In Egypt, pottery kilns made of clay appeared, twice the height of a human being, resembling a pipe expanding upwards; the furnace door, through which the fuel was loaded, was located below, and the vessels were loaded from above, and the potter climbed the stairs.

Later in Egypt, the mass becomes finer and the forms more varied, with relief and engraved ornaments. In addition to dishes, vases and bricks, the Egyptians made figurines from clay, often with animal heads, necklaces, images of scarabs, children's toys, seals, even sarcophagi, etc.

The color of Egyptian ceramics depended on the type of clay, decor (engobe) and firing. For its manufacture, mainly two varieties of clay were used: brown-gray with a fairly large amount of impurities (organic, ferruginous and sand), which acquired a brown-red color when fired, and gray calcareous almost without organic impurities, acquiring different shades of gray after firing. color, brown and yellowish.

Gradually, the glazing process began to spread in ancient Greece. Decorating with painting was carried out on a raw shard. The main ways of making ceramic vessels in Greece were hand molding of the vessel from flagella, molding on rope ingots and molding on a potter's wheel. Greek pottery reached its peak in the 6th-5th centuries. BC.

In ancient Greece, vases were not a luxury item - there were a lot of them and they were made from simple clay, and only black “lacquer” (flux engobe) was used for painting. But with a small variety of materials used (the Greeks did not know either transparent glazes or colored enamels), painted vases turned into genuine works of art that had a huge impact on the development of the entire world of decorative and applied art.

The painting of ancient Greek ceramics is usually divided into four styles:

• 1) IX-VIII centuries. BC. - geometric style - painting in the form of a geometric ornament with conventionally stylized figures of animals and people;
• 2) the end of the 7th century. BC. - carpet, or orientalizing, style - painting with polychrome ornamental belts with oriental patterns and images of animals and fantastic creatures;
• 3) VI century. BC. - black-figure style - painting with multi-figure compositions from the life of the gods with black "lacquer" on an unpainted yellow, orange or pinkish background;
• 4) around 530 BC - red-figure style - when the background was covered with black "lacquer", the unpainted figures had the natural color of a clay shard. This technique gave the master the opportunity to draw shapes in more detail, conveying the natural movement of the figure.

Etruscan ceramics (XII-V centuries BC) is not inferior to Greek in terms of technology, but has less artistic value.

Etruscan pottery can be divided into two groups:

• 1) copies of Greek vases (amphoras and bowls);
• 2) unpainted vessels of the Central Asian and Egyptian type with roughly made plastic decorations. According to the color of the shard, they are divided into black (buccero, the clay turned black during firing) and red (impasto).

Roman culture inherited many Greek traditions without the reverent attitude to ceramics, as was the case in ancient Greece. Ceramic products are no longer works of art, but ordinary household products, which in Roman terms have a purely utilitarian, pragmatic meaning. For the manufacture of dishes used hand potter's wheel. The design of pottery kilns did not change essentially, but kilns for mass production often reached larger sizes and allowed higher firing of ceramics. Roman ceramists made pots, soldier's cauldrons, frying pans, jugs for water, dishes for milk, goblets in the form of bowls and glasses, large dishes, plates, gravy boats, salad bowls. Roman builders widely used ceramics, they made complex architectural details from it.

Initially in Ancient Rome painted ceramics became widespread, but gradually it lost its artistic value and painting completely replaced the relief on earthenware covered with red “lacquer”. The ceramists of Arretium in Italy have achieved perfection in the manufacture of red glaze, which has an even color and a shiny surface, reminiscent of the luster of sealing wax.

For decoration, the well-known methods of making a low relief on the outer surface of the walls were used with the help of molds and stamps. Reliefs on some Arretine vessels were created using stamps that had "negative" in-depth images. They were imprinted in a soft ceramic mass on the surface of the vessels, and then covered with red "lacquer" and fired in kilns.

The most active ceramic products in Kievan Rus began to be made in the VIII-XII centuries. Initially, products were made by modeling, but at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries. there was a transition to pottery technology.

Various fillers were added to the mass to give strength: sand, crushed stone, mica, straw and chaff. To give strength to the products, they began to decorate them by red-hot in pure water, shaking in a warm bread solution and blackening in an oven. The main products were various types of dishes (pots, lids, jugs, bowls), children's toys, lamps, washstands, bricks, and facing tiles.

In the X-XI centuries. the manual potter's wheel replaces the foot one, which rotates faster and frees the potter's hands, which changes the technology again - the process of preliminary rough modeling of the product is eliminated.

The Tatar-Mongol yoke discarded all the achievements of Russian potters of the 9th-12th centuries: some vessels completely disappeared, the ornament was simplified, the technology of glazing was almost completely forgotten, and after the overthrow of the yoke, the products were distinguished by uniformity and rudeness of forms for another three centuries.

The culture of ceramic production in Western Europe was greatly influenced by Spanish-Moorish pottery covered with tin glaze. Initially, in Italy, only Spanish ceramics imported into the country were called "majolica", at the end of the 14th century. in Italy, the production of such ceramics began to develop intensively, and the 16th century. the name "majolica" was also applied to Italian ceramics.

In Italy, the ceramist Luca della Robbia (1399(1400)-1482) was the first to apply the technique of glazing terracotta in round sculpture and reliefs for the facades and interiors of buildings. His products began to be called majolica, and the developed glazes became the secret of the della Robbia family until the 16th century. the production of majolica sculpture remained the privilege of the della Robbia family.

Covering the items with white tin glaze created an ideal background for painting. At first, the drawing was simply applied to the raw glaze (el fresco), and then the technology was also improved by applying an additional coating of transparent glaze.

At first, most Italian pottery served only decorative purposes, but later decorativeness and utility were combined in albarelli - antique Renaissance vessels.

In turn, Italian majolica had a considerable influence on the development of the ceramic craft in Germany in the 15th century, as well as in France in the 16th-18th centuries, where it became known as faience.

In France, the founder of faience is Bernard Palissy (circa 1510-1589 (1590)), who developed his own recipes for white enamel and various glazes - glazes. He worked with "rural clays" and created numerous decorative works (mostly decorative dishes), sustained both in a naturalistic and in a mythological spirit. At the same time, another technology is being developed in France - firing at a low temperature with painting on pre-fired glaze.

Another technological type of ceramics of that time was stone mass. In the XIV century. German potters invented stone mass. It was mass produced in the XIV-XVII centuries.

Until the 15th century production technology improved, relief decoration began to be used, and only by the beginning of the 16th century. stoneware has acquired that classic look that it has now.

Due to the low-dispersion composition of the mass and slight shrinkage, the technology made it possible to decorate the walls of vessels with very thin and detailed reliefs. Stamps for their manufacture were cut out separately and imprinted on a dried vessel. Due to the high firing temperature, up to 1300°C, the porosity of the shard was reduced. Therefore, utilitarian dishes made of stone mass often could not be glazed, but most of the vessels were still covered with colorless salt glaze during firing. Stoneware gained strength, which made it possible to export it far from the place of production: to Europe, to Russia, and even to North America.

When stoneware came to England, ceramist Josiah Wedgwood invented better faience masses based on it - basalt shard, cream mass and "jasper mass", from which the famous blue vases with white relief in the style of classicism were made.

In the XVI century. Chinese porcelain was brought to Europe, where it became the most coveted jewel, porcelain products were in every palace in Europe and Russia. Expensive porcelain products were put on display and allowed to demonstrate the high status, wealth and good taste of the owner. Even broken products were not thrown away, porcelain shards were set in precious metals and worn like beads on a gold chain. In the 17th century there was a fashion decorative painting Chinese porcelain: the main motives for painting were a variety of flowers (peonies, chrysanthemums, lotus), pine branches, birds and animals, dragons.

The Europeans really wanted to reveal the secret of making porcelain. It is believed that faience, stone products and varieties of soft porcelain appeared as a result of these experiments. At first, these were attempts by Italian masters, and in Florence in 1575 "Medici porcelain" was obtained. By its properties, it was between hard and soft porcelain, had a yellowish color, was transparent due to white clay from Vicenza and was covered with white majolica glaze. Cobalt oxide was used for painting ( Blue colour), sometimes manganese oxide (bluish-purple). Products were decorated with stylized flowers, branches, birds. Such porcelain was produced until the first quarter of the 17th century. inclusive.

Then the French ceramists at the end of the 17th century. successful experiments were carried out in the manufacture of porcelain (manufactories in Rouen, Saint-Cloud, Mennessy, Chantilly, Vincennes, making products from soft porcelain). From 1673 to 1696, the Rouen manufactory produced fragile transparent soft milky porcelain. Blue, red and green underglaze paints were used for painting.

From 1670 to 1766, soft porcelain was created at the Saint-Cloud factory, products from which had simple forms, a thick cream-colored shard and were covered with a shiny transparent dense glaze that covered the relief. For decor, they used a pattern of molded or superimposed flowers and leaves, relief floral decoration and relief gilding.

Blue, turquoise, yellow and green overglaze paints were used for painting. Items were often set in silver.

In the XVIII century. many factories for the production of soft porcelain opened in Britain: Chelsea, Bow, Derby, Worcester, Spode, Coalport, Minton. Each of them had their own handwriting and style. From 1750 to 1784, the Chelsea factory produced decorative, impractical pieces of soft porcelain. At the production in Bow in 1748, for the first time, they began to add bone ash to the mass and obtained a bone china that was distinguished by its whiteness; at the factory in Derby from 1750 figurines were produced, competing with Chelsea, and from 1764 to 1769 soapstone was used in the production of porcelain.

Varieties of soft porcelain of the 16th-17th centuries. had a complex composition, a yellow color of the shard, they were severely deformed during firing, but some types of soft porcelain, after improving the composition and technology, continue to be produced to this day, such as bone china.

The presence of high porosity, brittleness, and severe deformation during firing of soft porcelain products forced Europeans to look for a recipe for hard porcelain. In Saxony, in 1709 (1710), the alchemist Johann Friedrich Böttger, with the help of the scientist Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, obtained samples of hard porcelain from Elector Augustus in 1709 (1710). They selected raw materials for porcelain and glazes, raised the firing temperature to 1300°C, and developed high-temperature firing technology.

In 1710, the Meissen manufactory was opened, which began to produce vessels similar in shape to Delft faience, vessels with double walls, decorated with carvings on the outside, cutlery and various sculptures were produced (one of the first sculptures was the figure of Augustus the Strong).

European customs in the 18th century became freer, and despite the efforts of the ruler of Saxony, Frederick Augustus I, to keep the technology of hard porcelain secret, the Meissen masters left for other countries along with the secrets of production. Porcelain quickly spread to European cities and replaced the production of faience.

In France, at the Sevres manufactory in 1750, soft Sevres porcelain was produced, and from 1756 hard porcelain began to be produced. The factory developed an exquisitely refined style of Sevres porcelain, especially items with painted gilded plastic and sculptures made of white unglazed porcelain (biscuit).

Russian ceramics after the decline caused by Tatar-Mongol yoke, again revived in the XIV-XV centuries. The main center is the Goncharnaya Sloboda in Moscow, where by the 17th century. a wide range of dishes, toys, lamps, etc. is produced.

In the XVI century. in Russia, a valuable craft arises (the manufacture of clay objects coated with white enamel). Most valuable products are tiles made on a clay basis, used to decorate temples and home furnishings. When describing the royal and boyar chambers in the XVI century. certainly there are references to valuable stoves covered with white tiles with a blue pattern.

At the beginning of the XVIII century. Gzhel craftsmen made simple white dishes and poured dishes with multi-colored glaze and artistic painting - Russian majolica. Products were very diverse: sculpture, dishes and even sets. However, rich people wanted to have chinaware.

In Russia, on the instructions of Peter I, since 1718, attempts were made to open porcelain. In 1724, Afanasy Kirillovich Grebenshchikov opened the first valuable (majolica) factory in Moscow and supplied his products to the imperial court. First, smoking pipes were produced according to Dutch samples, then tiles - first embossed, then smooth with painting, and from the end of the 1730s. - valuable (enamelled) dishes. The plant began to produce high-quality majolica utensils with blue and tricolor ornaments painted on raw light blue enamel. In 1746 (earlier than D. V. Vinogradov), the son of A. K. Grebenshchikov, Ivan Afanasevich, independently discovered the secret of porcelain production, but he did not receive permission for its production, and experiments on creating porcelain at the Grebenshchikov factory were discontinued.

According to the official version, porcelain appeared in Russia under Elizabeth Petrovna in 1746, but this recipe was developed by a Russian master who studied abroad (berg-meister) Dmitry Ivanovich Vinogradov. From 1744, he conducted experiments at the first porcelain (porcelain) Imperial Manufactory under the leadership of Gunter and developed a technology for the production of porcelain based on several varieties of Gzhel clay. The first porcelain items created in Russia after the discovery of the secret of Russian-10 porcelain were distinguished by originality and independence, especially in terms of form. The manufactory produced candlesticks, smoking pipes, sculptures, sets.

In 1765, the porcelain manufactory was transformed into the Imperial Porcelain Factory, where they continued to create decorative vases, busts, reliefs, a series (about a hundred) of porcelain figures depicting the peoples of Russia.

In 1766, Franz Yakovlevich Gardner founded a private enterprise for the production of porcelain near Moscow, in the village of Verbilki, Dmitrovsky district (hence the name "Dmitrovsky porcelain"). It was to him in 1778 that Catherine 11 entrusted the production of the “order” “George service”. At first, Saxon plates and sculptures were repeated at the factory, and even the Meissen brand was stamped in the form of two crossed swords and sold to merchants, philistines and wealthy peasants. AT early XIX in. at the Gardner factory they produced brightly painted figurines - "Russian types". In 1892, Gardner's heirs sold the plant to M.S. Kuznetsov.

At the beginning of the XIX century. Dozens of small private factories appeared in Russia. In 1812, the factory of the merchant Sergei Batenin was opened in St. Petersburg, producing until 1839 large gilded vases in the Russian Empire style with paintings, branded with lush bouquets of roses. Similar products were produced at the factories of Popov, Terekhov and Kiselev in the Gzhel region from gilded porcelain and were called "bronze goods".

In 1832, Terenty Yakovlevich Kuznetsov founded a ceramic factory in Likino-Dulyovo, near Moscow. By 1889, his grandson Matvey Sidorovich Kuznetsov had concentrated all the largest factories in his hands and organized the “MS Kuznetsov Partnership”. Kuznetsov left the old brand names and tried to keep the usual appearance of the products, but hand-painting was replaced with decals and different styles, manners, techniques and decorative elements began to be combined. By the end of the XIX century. ("Kuznetsov porcelain") forms became eclectic, overloaded with polychrome painting with coarse color combinations. Hence the contemptuous name "Kuznetsovshchina" as a synonym for "merchant taste" and eclecticism in Russian applied art of the late 19th century.

Since 1870, in Konakovo, Tver province, at a factory also acquired by M. S. Kuznetsov, they began to produce porcelain items with a typical "Kuznetsov" painting.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. ceramic production went in two main directions: the development of utilitarian household items (this direction was in decline during this period) and the exit from the historical framework (the second new direction created easel paintings in faience, decorative panels and sculptures in majolica). This conflict between mass production and art eventually led to the creation of design, which is responsible for creating not only a product, a style, but also a living environment. The design of ceramic products came to the fore, which should reflect both folk traditions and new trends in everyday life and architecture. Ceramic products are used in architecture as a building, facing and decorative material, in everyday life (dishes, vases), as artistic plastic, souvenir products.

Ceramic production - large factories, small workshops and individual ceramic artists - received at their disposal a large number of various masses for the production of a wide range of ceramic materials, as well as efficient equipment (primarily kilns) and worked out for decades of the 20th century. high performance technology.

Today, the following types of ceramics are used for the production of artistic ceramic products: majolica, pottery, terracotta, stone products, faience and porcelain. For the manufacture of ceramic products, the main methods of molding can be distinguished: slip casting, plastic method, semi-dry method, dry method.

Slip casting and plastic molding on machine tools make it possible to greatly reduce the cost of production, to copy and replicate ceramic products in any quantity.

Consider in the next chapter the classification of types of ceramics.

Questions and tasks for self-control

• 1. When did the first ceramic products appear?
• 2. What raw material was used to produce ceramic products?
• 3. How were the first pottery decorated?
• 4. Name the styles of painting in ancient Greek ceramics.
• 5. What technologies were used for the manufacture of ceramic products in Kievan Rus VIII-XII centuries?
• 6. In which European countries did porcelain begin to be made?
• 7. When did porcelain appear in Russia?
• 8. List the main ceramic production in the XIX century. in Russia.
• 9. What modern ceramic factories are known in Russia?

• Imanov G. M., Kosov V. S., Smirnov G. V. Production of artistic ceramics: textbook.M. : Higher School, 1985; Akunova L. F., Pribluda S. 3. Materials science and production technology of artistic ceramic products. Moscow: Higher school, 1991; Boyko 10. A., Livshits V. B. Materials for art products (Ceramics and coatings. Metal alloys). Moscow: OntoPrint, 2015; Volkova F. N. General Technology ceramic products. M .: Stroyizdat, 1989; Frantsuzova IG General technology for the production of porcelain and faience products. Moscow: Higher school, 1991.

It is an alloy of siliceous sand and other components with additives of coloring oxides. As a result of the remelting of quartz sand, feldspar, soda with metal oxides at a temperature of 1400°C - 1600°C, a homogeneous mass is obtained, which is molded by injection molding at a temperature of 1000°C. The manufacturing technology of glass mosaic is such that it becomes much stronger than glass, although the chemical composition is exactly the same. This happens for two reasons:

1. after pouring the glass mass into molds, it is subjected to high-temperature firing up to 800ºС,
2. the minimum module size is 2x2 cm.

To avoid cracks caused by thermal stresses, the molded mosaic is fired in the so-called tunnel kilns, where it is cooled to room temperature, moving along the conveyor at a constant speed.

Glass mosaic has a wide range of applications: walls and floors in kitchens, swimming pools, bathrooms, as well as furniture surfaces, fireplaces, building facades. The richness of the color palette provides ample opportunities for creating decorative panels, patterns and ornaments.

Now glass is the most affordable facing material of all types of mosaics. It is glass that has the largest number of advantages over other materials:

• high strength;
• chemical resistance - resistant to chemicals and many inorganic and organic acids found in most detergents;
• zero water absorption, so this mosaic can be used in rooms with any humidity and pool bowls;
• excellent heat resistance, resistance to temperature extremes (from + 15ºС to +145 ºС), which allows the use of mosaics for facing the fireplace from the outside (but not from the inside, where the temperature can be much higher);
• frost resistance (the ability to withstand at least 100 cycles of transition from sub-zero temperatures (-30 ºС) to positive ones without loss of quality), therefore, the mosaic is suitable for facing outdoor freezing pools in which water is left for the winter, and external walls;
• resistance to ultraviolet radiation - the colors of the product do not fade under prolonged exposure to light.
• low slip. This means that a person will be able to hold on even on a wet inclined plane lined with mosaics.
• a choice of 3000 colors and an unlimited number of their combinations.

ceramic mosaic

Ceramic mosaic is made from pieces of ceramic tiles of different shades of a huge colors, which allows you to create almost any drawings. Ceramic material for mosaic tiles is obtained from a mixture containing kaolin or clay. Also, various additives in the form of chamotte, quartz flour and flux are added to this mixture, which accelerate the sintering of water-insoluble materials. Thus, ceramic mosaic is an environmentally friendly and safe material. The surface of the mosaic is coated with glaze, which can result in both a smooth (polished) surface and a matte (rough) surface, which may contain all kinds of “special effects” - craquelures (small cracks on the surface), stains, blotches of a different color, imitation of an uneven surface.

The surface lined with ceramic mosaics will be more embossed than those finished with glass. Mosaic elements can have many shapes: square, rectangle, circle, pebble shape. Such a variety of forms allows designers to embody any, even the most unusual and bold idea in the interior.

Ceramic mosaic is stronger than glass, which is combined with resistance to abrasive wear and an original appearance. It is suitable for cladding various surfaces, including swimming pools, building facades, walls and floors of bathrooms, kitchens.

Ceramic mosaic has a number of advantages:

• This is a high strength material. A properly laid mosaic panel can withstand a weight that will be 20 times more than concrete or cement can withstand.
• High fire resistance and fire resistance. Ceramic mosaic does not burn and protects the lined surface from fire. In addition, when heated, it does not emit harmful substances. All this makes her suitable material for lining stoves and fireplaces.
• Water resistance. This property of ceramic mosaic allows it to be used in rooms with high humidity or constant contact with water.
• Wear resistance. Therefore, ceramic mosaic is used for facing floors and stairs.
• Ceramic mosaic does not fade in the sun.
• Resistant to aggressive environments, chemicals.
• It is known that microbes cannot exist on a ceramic mosaic for a long time.

Ceramic mosaic goes well with many other decoration materials. Looks especially good with porcelain stoneware and ceramic tiles. A ceramic mosaic panel will give a magnificent look to any room.

stone mosaic

Stone mosaics are made from a variety of stone types, ranging from onyx, jasper, tuff, amethyst, lapis lazuli to slate, travertine, serpentine, malachite, etc. The color of natural material is unique, the play of structures is unusual, so each mosaic image is unique. The stone can be left polished, polished, or it can be “aged” - then the color will be more muted and the edges smoother.

Elements are produced different shapes- from round to irregular. This is an almost ideal material for finishing the facades of houses, interiors of offices, shops, bars, restaurants. The natural origin of stone, durability, beauty, variety of forms - allow it to be extremely widely used in landscape design (paths, platforms, retaining walls, curbs, garden benches are made). Often used sea, river, lake pebbles, as well as various boulders.

Natural stone is always exclusive, as it has the energy of nature. Natural stone is used in the decoration of walls and floors, the manufacture of fireplaces, columns, countertops, mirror frames, vases, candlesticks, ornaments and sculptures, window sills, cornices, skirting boards, railings, coffee tables, bar counters. An excellent addition to the interior can be a picturesque mosaic made of natural stone, embodying story paintings, landscapes or still lifes.

marble mosaic

Marble is a crystalline rock formed as a result of recrystallization of limestone or dolomite. From combination rocks and the color and pattern of marble depend on the direction of sawing the stone.

Marble mosaic can serve for interior decoration floors and walls in the room. It will help to create a unique coziness with smooth overflows of warm tones of polished stone and, better than any other interior details, will emphasize the refined taste of the owner. Or it can be used to decorate exterior walls, creating unique façade designs that can help make your home or office stand out from the drab buildings. The use of marble mosaic always gives the interior a touch of stability, constancy, solidity. A wide range of color shades of marble allows you to create a variety of compositions based on the selection of materials similar in color and tone.

Mosaic made of artificial stone

Artificial stone is a unique material based on acrylic resins, made from environmentally friendly materials. Its coloring imitates the original structure of natural minerals. Artificial stone is a reliable material that is protected from temperature extremes, moisture and ultraviolet radiation. Mosaic made of acrylic stone is a rhythmic pattern, which at the same time resembles the surface of a stone box, and a colored stained-glass window, and a complex woven pattern, as if woven from many shreds. During production in fake diamond particles of natural minerals are added, thanks to which such materials have a truly unique structure, which is original for each element of the mosaic. Products made of such acrylic stone, in the depths of which solar modulations play, retain an excellent appearance for many years.

metal mosaic

Metal mosaic can be steel or golden color, depending on the metal used in the production. The manufacturing technology of such a mosaic varies from manufacturer to manufacturer. Most often, not clay tiles are used as a substrate, but rubber plates up to 4 mm thick. A metal steel layer is attached to them from above. Thanks to the elastic rubber backing, metal mosaic elements are more flexible than those made of ceramic or glass, which greatly expands the range of applications for such a mosaic for facing surfaces of complex shapes. In addition to standard, square, elements of a different shape with different textured surfaces are offered. Oval, hexagonal, rectangular, diamond-shaped and square elements allow you to lay out an intricate carpet on the wall or on the floor.

The surface is made polished, matte, with notches of various types and, finally, covered with a thin layer of brass or bronze. For decorating bathrooms, showers and pools, a special series of metal mosaics is produced, which uses stainless steel. To give the surface of the elements of a metal mosaic of various shades, bronze or brass is applied to it, however, such a mosaic is not recommended to be placed on the floor, as it is highly susceptible to abrasion.

Mosaic of precious metals

Golden mosaic is an indisputable sign of luxury. It consists of 585-carat gold foil sandwiched between thin plates of special glass. There are collections with yellow, white gold or platinum.

Production is completely manual. The golden mosaic is made in a handicraft way using the most ancient technology. Production begins with the traditional blowing of very thin transparent glass vessels (0.2-1 mm thick). The large "bubble" thus obtained is called soffione. This glass is cut into squares about 10x10 cm in size. Such golden mosaic plates are called "cartelline". A metal sheet of yellow or white gold is placed on a thin plate of the cartelline gold mosaic. A sheet is a thin foil obtained by beating metal by hand. A hot mass of thicker glass is poured onto a thin plate with foil. Thus, both glass layers are tightly connected and form a golden "pancake". After that, the golden "pancakes" are sent to the kiln for hardening.

A thin piece of glass can be colored, a thick plate of gold mosaic can be green, blue or transparent (crystal base). Cutting into cubes of gold mosaic is carried out manually. Obviously, the price of such material is considerable. Therefore, most often the golden mosaic is used individually, making inserts. Gold mosaic can be used for both walls and floors.