MS Gorbachev to the presidency in March 1985. And already on April 23 of the same year, he announced a course towards perestroika. It is worth saying that the political course originally proclaimed by the president was called "acceleration and perestroika", while the emphasis was on the word "acceleration". Subsequently, it disappeared, and the term "perestroika" came to the fore.

The essence of the new political course truly amazed sane politicians, because Gorbachev put the accelerated development and industrial production on an unprecedented scale at the forefront. From 1986 to 2000, it was planned to produce as many goods as produced in the previous 70 years.

However, such a grandiose plan was not destined to come true. The term "acceleration" lost popularity by the end of 1987, and perestroika lasted only until 1991, and ended with the collapse of the Union.

The first stage of the new era

Perestroika began with a radical change in party leaders. It must be said that the personnel nomenclature of the times of the rule of the country by Chernenko and Andropov has grown so old that the average age of the party leader was more than 70 years. Naturally, it was unacceptable. And Gorbachev seriously took up the "rejuvenation" of the party apparatus.

Another important sign of the first period of perestroika was the policy of glasnost. For the first time in many years, reality in the Soviet Union was shown not only in a life-affirming light, but also reflected negative aspects. There was some freedom of speech, of course, still timid and not in full force, but then it was perceived as a breath of air on a stuffy afternoon.
In foreign policy Gorbachev sought to strengthen and improve Soviet-American relations. This was expressed in a unilateral ban on nuclear tests.

Results of the beginning of perestroika

It is worth saying that the first stage of perestroika brought some changes to the life of the Soviet person and society as a whole. It was possible to rejuvenate the composition of the party leadership, which only benefited the country and its inhabitants. Glasnost led to the removal of tension in society, and thanks to nuclear disarmament, the situation in the world was defused.

However, then mistake after mistake, the discrepancy between words and deeds on the part of the government led to the fact that the results achieved came to naught.

The period from 1985 to 1991 is the time of perestroika in the USSR, which is invariably associated with the name of M. S. Gorbachev.

Reasons for perestroika were:

1) the Soviet economic system has exhausted the possibilities of its development;

2) generations of Soviet people of the post-war period formed more high level material and spiritual needs;

3) all layers of Soviet society experienced psychological discomfort;

4) the party and economic nomenklatura began to be burdened by the conventions of Soviet society, the dependence of personal well-being on official position.

Perestroika began with an attempt to bring the country's economy out of crisis. In February 1986, at the XXVII Congress of the CPSU, the concept of "accelerating the socio-economic development of the country" was proposed. The main core of the acceleration was the change in investment policy. It was planned to redistribute capital investments in industries that determine technical progress, primarily engineering. Based on the development of mechanical engineering, it was planned to build new plants in the shortest possible time, reconstruct old ones, carry out electronization, computerization, and the development of advanced technologies.

The program of technical re-equipment of industry was designed for a long period. To improve the situation, urgent measures were proposed in the near future.

Among them:

1) rational use of equipment, transition to 2 - 3-shift work;

2) increasing labor discipline and improving the organization of labor;

3) improving product quality;

4) activation of the human factor, the rise of the creative initiative of the masses.

The implementation of these measures immediately ran into the inertia of the system. The transfer to 2-3-shift work required changes in the operation of public transport, the trade network, preschool children's institutions and was not carried out on a sufficiently large scale. In the conditions of commodity shortage and monopoly of the manufacturer, the requirement to improve quality looked strange and simply ridiculous. Introduction state system product acceptance led to an increase in the number of inspectors.

At the same time, attempts were made to reform the administrative-command system. In 1987, a law on the state enterprise was adopted, which provided for the expansion of the economic independence of enterprises, their transfer to self-supporting, establishing a direct dependence of the income of the labor collective on production efficiency. In the summer of 1989, labor collectives received the right to lease enterprises and withdraw from the ministry.

Similar transformations were carried out in 1989 in agriculture. Proclaimed the equality of all forms of ownership, the development of rent in the countryside.

The reform of the management of industry and agriculture did not lead to any noticeable improvement, since this was not a transition to economic methods of managing the country's economy, but only a limitation of administration. Under the dominance of state ownership of the means of production, the reform led to an increase in prices and a shortage of consumer products, essentials.

The acceleration program required huge costs, the return on which could be obtained in 5-10 years. At the same time, major social programs for housing construction, increasing pensions and scholarships for young people began to be implemented. It also required huge expenses. Attempts to saturate the market by cooperative movement and development of individual labor activity have failed. Cooperatives became an appendage of the administrative system; in conditions of shortage of raw materials and materials, they used illegal ways. Corruption flourished. As a result, instead of growth in production, there was an increase in prices and a decrease in product quality.

1) the program "500 days", developed by S. Shatalin and G. Yavlinsky;

2) the program of the government of N. I. Ryzhkov, later - V. S. Pavlov.

The first program was a program for a rapid and decisive transition to the market, the transfer of commercial and industrial enterprises into private hands. The government program was stretched out in time, the transition to the market had to be carried out gradually. It was decided to stop at the government program. But the time for reform was lost: the country's economy was disintegrating.

In the political development of the USSR since perestroika, one can conditionally distinguish three stages.

First stage- from March 1985 to January 1987 - was held under the slogan "more socialism". Representatives of the new nomenklatura elite came to the leadership of the country: E.K. Ligachev, B.N. Yeltsin, A.N. Yakovlev, who understood the need for reforms. A rethinking of the historical past and the real situation of Soviet society began. The CPSU assumed responsibility for the deformations of the previous stages. Party and state leaders of the 1920s and 1920s were rehabilitated.

Second phase- 1987-1988 - held under the slogan "more democracy". At this time, there are drastic changes in political system society. The reform was initiated by the CPSU itself. In June-July 1988, the XIX All-Union Party Conference was held, which determined the paths of democratization. The purpose of the reform was proclaimed the transfer of power from party bodies to the Soviets. people's deputies. The congress of people's deputies became the supreme body of power. The congress elected from among its members a permanent bicameral Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

Simultaneously, a new electoral law was adopted (December 1988). For the first time, the elections of deputies became alternative (there could be several contenders); all orders were canceled when nominating candidates for deputies. But the decisions of the conference and the electoral law were half-hearted. They ensured the preservation of power in the hands of the party, since they provided that 1/3 of the deputies would be elected from the party itself and public organizations controlled by it.

Third stage- 1989-1990 - meant the demarcation of the political forces of the country. In the elections of people's deputies, many party leaders were defeated; opposition-minded figures, for example, academician A. D. Sakharov, turned out to be elected. In April 1989, the First Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR opened. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR was elected, MS Gorbachev became its chairman. An opposition group of deputies was formed at the congress: an “interregional group”, which included A. D. Sakharov, B. N. Yeltsin, G. Kh. Popov, A. A. Sobchak, T. Kh. Gdlyan, N. I. Travkin and etc. In March 1989, elections were held to local and republican Soviets, during which opposition parties and movements began to be created. In most regions of the country, they defeated the CPSU. The Moscow Council was headed by G. Kh. Popov, the Leningrad Council - by A. A. Sobchak. In July 1990, the First Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR elected Boris N. Yeltsin Chairman of the Supreme Council.

In March 1990, the III Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR decided to switch to a presidential form of government and elected M. S. Gorbachev as president of the country. The 6th article of the Constitution of the USSR was canceled, fixing the special place of the CPSU. Thus, the transfer of power into the hands of the Soviets was finally completed. In October 1990, the law "On Public Organizations" was adopted, recognizing the presence of a multi-party system in the country.

Meanwhile, political disengagement continued. Radical political currents, initially proclaiming "the improvement of socialism", moved to open anti-communist positions. In the fall of 1990, the idea of ​​anti-communism was proclaimed by the Democratic Russia movement. A number of leaders of the CPSU (B. N. Yeltsin, A. N. Yakovlev) left the party and joined this movement. The disintegration of the CPSU itself began. In July 1990, at the XXVIII Party Congress, the Democratic Platform emerged from it and formed an independent party. On the other hand, a number of party leaders (I. K. Polozkov, G. A. Zyuganov) formed the Russian Communist Party within the CPSU. These political formations were the result of the centrist position of MS Gorbachev, the fall of his authority.

The sharp deterioration of the economic situation, the loss of control over the country's economy aggravated centrifugal forces. The actual disintegration of the USSR began. Attempts by President M. S. Gorbachev to halt the process of disintegration Soviet Union were thwarted by the events of August 1991. In December 1991, the Soviet Union self-liquidated. A new period in the history of Russia has begun.

1. Prerequisites for reforms

1.1. Economic. By the mid 80s. crisis phenomena developed in the socio-economic system of the USSR. The Soviet economy finally lost its dynamism. There was a drop in growth rates in industry and labor productivity. The crisis situation has developed in the sphere of the consumer market and finance (including in connection with the decline in world oil prices in the early 1980s). In recent decades, the USSR and Russia in its composition have lagged sharply behind in terms of world indicators of agricultural productivity. The residual principle of financing the social sphere, science and culture was practiced.

Stagnation in the economy was combined with a large proportion of military spending in the budget (45% of the funds were spent on the military-industrial complex), a drop in living standards, which caused an objective need for radical changes.

1.2. Political situation. In 1965 -1985. the formation of the main institutions of the Soviet bureaucratic system was completed. At the same time, its inefficiency and viciousness became more and more clearly manifested as a result of such features as corruption, protectionism, etc. There was a degradation of the ruling elite of society - the nomenklatura, which was a stronghold of conservatism. Society is faced with gerontocracy, when aging, sick leaders came to power.

Yu.V. Andropov, who, after the death of Brezhnev (November 1982), took over the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, tried to launch a fight against corruption, update the system by clearing it of decayed elements of the nomenklatura and strengthening discipline in society. But these undertakings took on the character of a traditional Soviet campaign, and after the death of Andropov, in February 1984, they were completely curtailed. The highest post in the state was taken by a close associate of Brezhnev, 73-year-old K.U.Chernenko who died in March 1985

Nevertheless, the need for change was recognized by the country's leadership. Yu.V.Andropov and, to some extent, K.U.Chernenko tried to carry out certain overdue transformations (limitation of general planning, change in the pricing system, etc.), but these attempts ended in vain. Young party leaders who came to power in April 1985 - M.S. Gorbachev, E.K.Ligachev and others combined a commitment to the communist idea and management methods and the desire to transform the socialist society.

1.3. Social. There was a crisis in the social sphere. Real per capita income in the early 80s. (compared with 1966-1970) decreased by 2.8 times. Gradually, despite the development of science and technology, the quality of health care deteriorated - the USSR ranked 50th in the world in terms of infant mortality.

The remaining leveling and scarce system of distribution in the lower part of the social pyramid came into conflict with the protected system of privileges of the managerial stratum. Alienation from political power, means of production, and in fact from civil rights led to social apathy in society, deformation of morality, a decline in morality.

The tightening of ideological control, the persecution of dissidents turned into the development of a dissident movement, despite its small number, which received a wide response abroad.

1.4. Foreign policy. The Cold War dealt a blow to the idea of ​​natural allies, bringing to the fore the concept of an evil empire in the United States, and the thesis of bloody imperialism in the USSR. The Cold War, the existing bipolar system led by the USSR and the USA, resulted in rivalry between the two countries and a continuous, exhausting arms race.

By the mid 80s. the economic failure of the great power claims of the Soviet Union became obvious. His allies were mostly underdeveloped third world states.

The impotence of Soviet military power was also demonstrated by the Afghan adventure that had reached a dead end. All this happened against the backdrop of the increasing economic and technological backwardness of the USSR from the developed countries, which by that time were undergoing a transition to an information (post-industrial) society, i.e. to resource-saving technologies and science-intensive industries (microelectronics, informatics, robotics).

2. Reform of the political system

2.1. Restructuring tasks. The entry of the USSR into the era radical transformation dates back to April 1985 and is associated with the name of the new General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU M.S. Gorbachev (elected to this post at the March Plenum of the Central Committee).

The new course proposed by Gorbachev involved the modernization of the Soviet system, introduction structural and organizational changes into economic, social, political and ideological mechanisms.

In the new strategy, personnel policy acquired particular importance, which was expressed, on the one hand, in the fight against negative phenomena in the party and state apparatus (corruption, bribery, etc.), on the other hand, in the elimination of political opponents of Gorbachev and his course (in the Moscow and Leningrad party organizations, in the Central Committee of the Communist Parties of the Union Republics).

2.2. The ideology of reform. Initially (beginning in 1985), the strategy was to improve socialism and accelerate socialist development. At the January 1987 Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, and then at the XIX All-Union Party Conference (summer 1988) M.S. Gorbachev laid out a new ideology and strategy for reform. For the first time, the presence of deformations in the political system was recognized and the task was to create a new model - socialism with a human face.

The ideology of perestroika included some liberal democratic principles(separation of powers, representative democracy (parliamentarism), protection of civil and political human rights). At the XIX Party Conference, for the first time, the goal of creating in the USSR civil (legal) society.

2.3. Democratization and Glasnost became the essential expressions of the new concept of socialism. Democratization touched the political system, but it was also seen as the basis for the implementation of radical economic reforms.

2.3.1. On the this stage restructuring was widely developed publicity, criticism of the deformations of socialism in the economy, politics, spiritual sphere. The Soviet people have access to many works by both theoreticians and practitioners of Bolshevism, declared at one time enemies of the people, and figures of the Russian emigration of various generations.

2.3.2. Democratization of the political system. As part of the democratization, the formation political pluralism. In 1990, Article 6 of the Constitution was canceled, which secured the monopoly position of the CPSU in society, which opened up the possibility for the formation of a legal multi-party system in the USSR. Its legal basis was reflected in the Law on Public Associations (1990).

In 1989-1991 were the main party-political parties and blocs have been formed. The crisis of the CPSU led to an ideological split in the party and the formation of the CPSU (b) ( N.A.Andreeva), Russian Communist Workers Party ( V.A. Tyulkin), Labor Russia movement ( V.I.Anpilov), the Communist Party of the RSFSR (I. Polozkov, then G.A. Zyuganov ) and etc . Social Democratic parties: Social Democratic Party of Russia ( O. Rumyantsev, V. Sheinis), Socialist Party of Workers ( L.S. Vartazarova), People's Party of Free Russia ( A.V. Rutskoy) and etc. Liberal the spectrum of political forces was represented by the Democratic Russia movement ( E.T. Gaidar), Democratic Party of Russia ( N.I.Travkin), the Republican Party of the Russian Federation ( V.N. Lysenko) and etc. Right-wing and conservative: Christian Democratic Party of Russia ( A. Chuev), Monarchist Party, Peasant Party of Russia, etc. National-patriotic: Russian National Cathedral (General A.N. Sterligov), Russian National Union ( S.N.Baburin), Liberal Democratic Party ( V.V. Zhirinovsky) and etc. radical nationalist: National Patriotic Front Memory ( D.D.Vasiliev), All-Russian Public Patriotic Movement Russian National Unity ( A.P. Barkashov), National Republican Party ( N.N. Lysenko) and etc.

2.4. Changes in the system of government. To determine the legislative policy in the country, they again returned to the tradition of convening Congresses of People's Deputies as the country's highest legislative body. The congress formed the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (actually the parliament). On the basis of the law on changing the electoral system of 1988, the principle of alternative elections of people's deputies of the USSR was introduced. The first alternative elections were held in the spring of 1989. After that, the First Congress of People's Deputies took place in May-June 1989, at which he was elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev. Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR B.N. Yeltsin.

In 1990, the institute of presidency was introduced in the USSR. The III Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR in March 1990 elected MS Gorbachev President of the USSR. AT December 1991 Presidential elections were held in most Union republics. On June 12, 1991, B.N. was elected President of the RSFSR. Yeltsin.

2.5. results of democratization. As a result of political transformations and the ambiguity of assessments of their results in society, a struggle unfolded over the content, pace and methods of reforms, accompanied by an increasingly acute struggle for power.

In the autumn of 1988, a radical wing emerged in the camp of reformers, in which the role of leaders belonged to HELL. Sakharov, B.N. Yeltsin and others. Radicals disputed power with Gorbachev and demanded the dismantling of the unitary state. After the spring elections of 1990 to local councils and party committees, forces in opposition to the leadership of the CPSU also came to power in Moscow and Leningrad - representatives of the movement Democratic Russia(leader- E.T. Gaidar). 1989-1990 became a period of revitalization of informal movements, the organization of opposition parties.

Gorbachev and his supporters tried to limit the activities of the radicals. Yeltsin was ousted from leadership. But, having created the opportunity to eliminate the hegemony of the CPSU, Gorbachev and his associates did not realize the impossibility of returning to the old. By the beginning of 1991, Gorbachev's centrist policy increasingly coincided with the position of the conservatives.

3. Economic reforms

3.1. Acceleration strategy and methods of its implementation. The key concept in M.S. Gorbachev’s reform strategy was acceleration production of means of production, social sphere, scientific and technological progress. The priority task of economic reforms was recognized as the accelerated development of mechanical engineering as the basis for the re-equipment of the entire national economy. At the same time, emphasis was placed on strengthening production and performance discipline (measures to combat drunkenness and alcoholism); product quality control (Law on state acceptance).

3.2. Economic reform 1987 Economic reform, which was developed by famous economists - L. Abalkin, A. Aganbegyan, P. Bunich and others, was carried out in accordance with the concept self-supporting socialism.

Reform project provided:

Expanding the independence of enterprises on the principles of cost accounting and self-financing;

Gradual revival of the private sector of the economy, primarily through the development of the cooperative movement;

Renunciation of the monopoly of foreign trade;

Deep integration into the global market;

Reducing the number of sectoral ministries and departments between which it was supposed to establish partnerships;

Recognition of equality in the countryside of the five main forms of management (collective farms, state farms, agro-combines, rental cooperatives, farms).

3.3. Reform implementation characterized by inconsistency and half-heartedness. In the course of the transformations, there was no reform of credit, pricing policy, or a centralized supply system.

3.3.1. However, despite this, the reform contributed to the formation of a private sector in the economy. In 1988, Law on cooperation and Law on individual labor activity(ETC). The new laws opened the possibility for private activity in more than 30 types of production of goods and services. By the spring of 1991, more than 7 million people were employed in the cooperative sector and another 1 million people were self-employed. The reverse side of this process was the legalization of the shadow economy.

3.3.2. industrial democratization. In 1987, the Law on the State Enterprise (Association) was adopted. Enterprises were transferred to self-sufficiency and self-supporting, receiving the right to foreign economic activity, the creation of joint ventures. At the same time, most of the manufactured products were still included in the state order and, therefore, were withdrawn from free sale.

Under the Law on Labor Collectives, a system of electing heads of enterprises and institutions was introduced.

3.3.3. Reforming agriculture. Changes in agriculture began with the reform of state farms and collective farms. In May 1988, it was announced that it was expedient to switch to a lease contract in the countryside (under a land lease agreement for 50 years with the right to dispose of the resulting products). By the summer of 1991, only 2% of the land was cultivated on lease terms and 3% of the livestock was kept. In general, no major changes were achieved in agricultural policy. One of the main reasons was the nature of government food policy. For many years, prices for basic foodstuffs were maintained at a low level with low growth rates of agricultural production, which was facilitated by subsidizing both the producer (up to 80%) and the consumer (1/3 of the Russian budget) of food. The deficit budget could not cope with such a load. No law was passed on the transfer of land to private ownership and the increase in household plots.

3.3.4. Economic results showed the inconsistency of the ongoing reforms. Remaining within the framework of the socialist economic system - universal planning, distribution of resources, state ownership of the means of production, etc. - the national economy of the country, at the same time, lost its administrative-command levers, coercion on the part of the party. At the same time, market mechanisms were not created.

After some initial successes, driven by the enthusiasm for renewal, the economic downturn began. Since 1988, there has been a general decline in agricultural production. As a result, the population faced a shortage of food products, even in Moscow their rationed distribution was introduced. Since 1990, a general reduction in industrial production has begun.

3.4. 500 days program. In the summer of 1990, instead of accelerating, a course was proclaimed for the transition to a market economy, scheduled for 1991, that is, by the end of the 12th five-year plan (1985-1990). However, in contrast to the plans of the official leadership for a phased (over several years) introduction of the market, a plan was developed (known as the 500 days program), aimed at a quick breakthrough in market relations, supported by the opposition to Gorbachev, Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR B.N. Yeltsin.

The authors of the next project were a group of economists academician S. Shatalin, G. Yavlinsky, B. Fedorov and others. During the first half of the term, it was planned: the transfer of enterprises to forced lease, large-scale privatization and decentralization of the economy, the introduction of antimonopoly legislation. During the second half, it was supposed to remove mainly state control over prices, allow a recession in the basic sectors of the economy, regulated unemployment and inflation in order to drastically restructure the economy.

This project created a real basis for the economic union of the republics, but contained significant elements of utopianism and could lead to unpredictable social consequences. Under pressure from conservatives, Gorbachev withdrew his support for this program.

4. The final stage of restructuring

the collapse of the USSR and the communist system

4.1. The beginning of the disintegration process on the territory of the USSR. 4.1.1. national direction This movement was represented by the Popular Fronts of the Union Republics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Armenia, Georgia). During 1989 - 1990. the Baltic, and after them other republics of the USSR, including Russia, adopted declarations of national sovereignty.

4.1.2. Simultaneously with the growth of opposition to the allied power structures, crisis of communist ideology followed by the collapse of the CPSU, lost the function of the mechanism that held together the unbreakable union of the republics of the free. During 1989-1990. The communist parties of the Baltic republics left the CPSU. In 1990, the Communist Party of the RSFSR was created.

4.1.3. In conditions of an unstable position and strengthening of centrifugal forces, one of the most important tasks of M.S. Gorbachev became the problem of reforming the USSR and the conclusion of a new treaty between the republics. Prior to this, attempts were made to maintain federal power by force (in April 1989 in Tbilisi, in January 1990 in Baku, in January 1991 in Vilnius and Riga).

During 1988-1990. party resolutions were adopted on interethnic relations, on the fundamentals of economic relations of the USSR, union and autonomous republics, and also on the procedure for resolving issues related to the withdrawal of a union republic from the USSR. In December 1990, the IV Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR adopted a resolution on the general concept of the Union Treaty, which was signed in Novo-Ogaryovo in April 1991 (known as the 9 + 1 agreement). This agreement, as well as the subsequent draft agreement on the creation of the Union of Soviet Sovereign Republics, provided for the granting of significant rights to the republics and turned the center from a manager into a coordinating one. On March 17, 1991, a referendum was held in the USSR, during which the absolute majority of citizens (76.4%) voted for the preservation union state in an updated form.

4.2. August 1991 political crisis The signing of a new union treaty was scheduled for August 20. The day before, on August 19, in order to disrupt the conclusion of an agreement and restore the power of the center and the CPSU, the conservative wing from the leadership of the USSR - G.I. Yanaev(vice president) V.S. Pavlov(Prime Minister, who replaced N.I. Ryzhkov), Marshal D.T. Yazov(Minister of Defense of the USSR), V.A. Kryuchkov(Chairman of the KGB of the USSR), B.K.Pugo(Minister of the Interior) and others announced the creation State Committee for the State of Emergency (GKChP)) and tried to remove Gorbachev from power through a conspiracy (August 19-21, 1991).

However, the resolute rejection of the putschists by the general public and the firm position of the Russian leadership, headed by B.N. Yeltsin led to the defeat of the putschists. The position of condemnation or non-recognition was also taken by the leaders of most of the union republics, thanks to which the centrifugal tendencies subsequently accelerated significantly. The main part of the leadership of the army, the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the KGB also did not support the GKChP.

4.3. End of the communist system. On August 23, 1991, after the suppression of the putsch in Moscow, a decree was signed on the dissolution of the CPSU. M.S. Gorbachev resigned from the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee. The Union Cabinet of Ministers was also dissolved, and in September the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR and the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. In November 1991, the Communist Party was banned on the territory of the RSFSR.

4.4. The collapse of the USSR.

4.4.1. The collapse of the communist regime caused a process separatist tendencies in the USSR. Immediately after the suppression of the August coup, three Baltic republics announced their withdrawal from the Union. Other republics also passed laws declaring sovereignty that made them effectively independent of Moscow. Real power in the republics was concentrated in the hands of national presidents.

4.4.2. Belavezha agreement. CIS education. December 8, 1991 at the Belarusian meeting of the leaders of the three sovereign republics of Russia (B.N. Yeltsin), Ukraine ( L.N. Kravchuk) and Belarus ( S. Shushkevich), without the participation of M.S. Gorbachev, it was announced the termination of the existence of the USSR and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). On December 21, in Alma-Ata, eleven former Soviet republics supported the Belovezhskaya agreement. On December 25, the President of the USSR MS Gorbachev resigned.

4.4.3. Causes of the collapse of the USSR. Historically, the USSR repeated the fate of multinational empires, which naturally came to their collapse. The collapse of the USSR was also the result of the impact of objective and subjective causes.

Among the first group of prerequisites

Accumulating national contradictions Soviet period;

The failure of the economic reforms carried out during the Gorbachev period;

The crisis of communist ideology and the weakening of the role of the CPSU with the subsequent liquidation of its party-political monopoly, which formed the basis of the USSR;

The movement for the national self-determination of the republics, which began during perestroika.

played a role in the destruction of the USSR subjective factor: errors M.S. Gorbachev, his inconsistency in carrying out reforms, the lack of a developed national policy; political choice of the leaders of the three Slavic republics. Representatives of local political elites, leaders of national movements also set as one of the main goals the task of gaining republican independence and real sovereignty.

4.4.4. Consequences of the collapse of the USSR were difficult for the peoples of all the former Soviet republics.

The political and economic ties between the republics, which had centuries-old historical and cultural traditions, were broken. Most of the difficulties should be attributed to the disruption of cooperative ties.

Another consequence of the collapse of the multinational state was the aggravation of interethnic relations on the territory of the post-Soviet republics, which led to the emergence of territorial conflicts in many regions of the former USSR (between Azerbaijan and Armenia; Georgia and South Ossetia, later Abkhazia, Ingushetia and North Ossetia, etc.) . AT civil war outgrew ethnic conflict in Tajikistan. There was a problem of refugees.

A new acute problem was the position of the Russian-speaking population in the national republics.

5. Conclusions

5.1. During the period of perestroika (1985-1991) in Soviet society, there was finally destroyed the Soviet communist system. Society has become open to the outside world.

On the wave of democratization in the USSR political pluralism, multi-party system took shape, began to emerge civil society, carried out separation of powers.

5.2. At the same time, the reformers in power did not at first envision the expansion and deepening of reforms. But, having started from above, perestroika was picked up and developed from below, which was a guarantee of maintaining and expanding the political course for reforms, which, to some extent, assumed an unmanageable character.

Politics publicity aimed at emancipating the consciousness of tens of millions of people in the USSR, largely determined irreversible nature of change in society and ultimately led to the defeat of the conservative forces in August 1991.

5.3. However, the experience of transformations has shown that a democratized socialist socio-economic system cannot exist outside of an administrative-command system that is incompatible with the new political realities. Therefore, half-hearted, but accelerated economic reforms era of M.S. Gorbachev failed, and by the end of the 80s. communist reformers finally exhausted their creative potential.

5.4. As a result, after the cleansing of socialism from deformations was followed by the collapse of the socialist system itself.

5.5. perestroika ended with the collapse of the USSR and the collapse of the communist system.

Historically, the USSR repeated the fate of multinational empires, which naturally came to their collapse.

The collapse of the USSR was also the result of the impact of objective and subjective causes. Among the first group of prerequisites:

The accumulating national contradictions of the Soviet period;

The failure of the economic reforms carried out during the Gorbachev period;

The crisis of communist ideology and the weakening of the role of the CPSU with the subsequent liquidation of its party-political monopoly, which formed the basis of the USSR;

The movement for the national self-determination of the republics, which began during perestroika.

played a role in the destruction of the USSR subjective factor: M.S. Gorbachev's mistakes, his inconsistency in carrying out reforms, the lack of a developed national policy; political choice of the leaders of the three Slavic republics.

Representatives of local political elites, leaders of national movements also set as one of the main goals the task of gaining republican independence and real sovereignty.

Consequences of the collapse of the USSR were difficult for the peoples of all the former Soviet republics. The political and economic ties between the republics, which had centuries-old historical and cultural traditions, were broken.

Another consequence of the collapse of the multinational state was the aggravation of interethnic relations on the territory of the post-Soviet republics, which led to the emergence of territorial conflicts in many regions of the former USSR (between Azerbaijan and Armenia; Georgia and South Ossetia, later Abkhazia, Ingushetia and North Ossetia, etc.) . The ethnic conflict in Tajikistan escalated into a civil war. There was a problem of refugees. A new acute problem was the position of the Russian-speaking population in the national republics.

During the period of perestroika in Soviet society, it was finally destroyed the Soviet communist system. Society has become open to the outside world.

On the wave of democratization in the USSR political pluralism, multi-party system took shape, began to emerge civil society, carried out separation of powers.

At the same time, the reformers in power did not at first envision the expansion and deepening of reforms. But, having started from above, perestroika was picked up and developed from below, which was a guarantee of maintaining and expanding the political course for reforms, which, to some extent, assumed an unmanageable character.

Politics publicity aimed at emancipating the consciousness of tens of millions of people in the USSR, largely determined irreversible nature of change in society and ultimately led to the defeat of the conservative forces in August 1991.

However, the experience of transformations has shown that a democratized socialist socio-economic system cannot exist outside the administrative-command system, which is incompatible with the new political realities. Therefore, the half-hearted, but accelerated economic reforms of the era of M.S. Gorbachev failed, and by the end of the 80s gg. communist reformers finally exhausted their creative potential.

As a result, after the cleansing of socialism from deformations was followed by the collapse of the socialist system itself. Perestroika completed collapse of the USSR and the collapse of the communist system.

Perestroika was destined to be the last in the 20th century. attempt to reform the socialist system.

The reasons for the collapse of the USSR are expressed different opinions. What is clear is that it became possible under conditions economic crisis, a sharp weakening of power, the real bearer of which for many years was the CPSU, the aspirations of national elites for independence.

The global consequences of the collapse of the USSR will be determined by history.

Conclusion

1980s - early 1990s - a period of world history, which was characterized by major changes in international relations, socio-economic and political development. In the capitalist states, a new upsurge of the economy was observed. Against this background, perestroika in the USSR became the central event.

In April 1985, at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, as a strategic goal of the new Soviet leadership headed by M.S. Gorbachev and society as a whole, a course was proclaimed to accelerate the socio-economic development of the country, democratization and glasnost. The goals of perestroika were more clearly defined at the January Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU (1987). This is “the renewal of all aspects of the life of our society, giving socialism the most modern forms public organization the most complete disclosure of the creative potential of the socialist system. The new domestic and foreign policy of the Soviet leadership significantly changed the situation in society and in the world. As a result of the implementation of the idea of ​​new political thinking in foreign policy, the Soviet Union began to quickly turn from a “closed” country into a country of broad contacts.

In the course of perestroika, the political confrontation between the forces advocating the socialist path of development and parties and movements that link the future of the country with the organization of life on the principles of capitalism, as well as on issues of the future image of the Soviet Union, the relationship between union and republican bodies, sharply escalated. state power and management.

The inconsistency and inconsistency of the policy of the Soviet leadership, the difficult socio-economic and political situation in society ultimately led the country to an even deeper crisis. The August events of 1991 ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the removal of President MS Gorbachev from power.

By the early 1990s, perestroika led to an aggravation of the crisis in all spheres of society, the elimination of the power of the CPSU and the collapse of the USSR. The collapse of the USSR led to the creation of the CIS and the collapse of the world socialist system.

Stages of "perestroika"

Restructuring can be conditionally divided into three stages.

First stage

The first stage (March 1985 - January 1987). This period was characterized by the recognition of some shortcomings of the existing political and economic system of the USSR and attempts to correct them with several major administrative campaigns (the so-called "Acceleration") - an anti-alcohol campaign, "the fight against unearned income", the introduction of state acceptance, a demonstration of the fight against corruption. No radical steps have yet been taken during this period; outwardly, almost everything remained the same. At the same time, the bulk of the old cadres of the Brezhnev draft were replaced with a new team of managers.

The beginning of the new course was laid at the April (1985) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU. The Plenum discussed the need for a qualitative transformation of society, the urgency of profound changes in all spheres of its life. Directions for the development of the national economy and the social sphere were outlined. The main lever of transformations was to be the acceleration of the socio-economic development of the country. The success of the acceleration was associated with a more active use of the achievements of science and technology, the decentralization of the management of the national economy, the expansion of the rights of enterprises, the introduction of cost accounting, the strengthening of order and discipline in production. (1, p. 454)

The main idea of ​​the "concept of accelerating the socio-economic development of the country" was reduced to a rapid rise in the economy through the redistribution of financial flows and a new structural policy. It was proposed to stop costly capital construction, and to direct the released funds to the technical re-equipment and modernization of enterprises. From the import of consumer goods, it was proposed to switch to the purchase of machine-building equipment.

Mechanical engineering was defined as a new "priority", and its development was to outpace other industries. Along with these administrative and managerial decisions, the second, no less important component of "acceleration" was called the "human factor". This meant the continuation of Andropov's policy of strengthening discipline everywhere, bringing order to the expenditure of raw materials and resources, more rational use of equipment and a barrier to the production of low-quality products. At the same time, much more attention was paid to the other side of the "human factor" - it was proposed to really interest people in the results of labor, breathe life into the movement of innovators and inventors, and try to restore incentives to work. Thus, the concept of "acceleration" was not something radically new, but represented some new combination of techniques from the arsenal of traditional Soviet experience. (6, p. 249)

To improve the quality of products, soon after the April plenum, state acceptance of products was introduced at the largest enterprises. The introduction of "state acceptance" was a mechanical transfer of the experience of defense enterprises to civilian production. But the replacement of departmental control by yet another bureaucratic structure only led to swelling of the administrative staff and disruption of the rhythmic work of enterprises. As a result, output declined, shortages increased, and quality remained at the same level, since it was completely unaffected by the already high consumer demand. (6, p. 251)

In May 1985, a large-scale anti-alcohol campaign began. According to plans, the production of alcohol by 1990 was to be halved. Drunkenness was fought with administrative and coercive methods. Tougher penalties for drunkenness at work, launched a campaign in the press. (7, p. 63)

The activities carried out had a certain positive effect: reduced injuries; the death rate of people, loss of working time, hooliganism, divorces due to drunkenness and alcoholism have decreased. But, as Gorbachev later wrote, "the negative consequences of the anti-alcohol campaign far outweighed its positives." Among the costs of the campaign include: the hasty closure of stores, wine and vodka factories; cutting down vineyards; curtailment of production of dry wines; reduction in beer production; mass development of home brewing, which led to the exhaustion of sugar resources in the country. This entailed a sharp reduction in the range of confectionery products; Inexpensive colognes, which were used instead of vodka, began to disappear, and the use of its other “substitutes” led to an increase in diseases and the anger of significant masses of the population.

According to Gorbachev, as a result of a massive anti-alcohol campaign, the budget lost 37 billion rubles. Contemporaries also cited other figures: 67 (N.I. Ryzhkov) and 200 billion (V.S. Pavlov). As early as 1989, revenues from the alcohol trade went up again and reached 54 billion rubles, exceeding the level of 1984 by 1 billion. financial imbalance, the origin of which was of a deeper nature.

Alarming information about "excesses" in different channels reached the leadership, but "above" did not consider it necessary to correct the course. “Our desire to overcome this terrible misfortune was very great,” Gorbachev later wrote. The desire to “overcome troubles faster” determined the nature of many decisions taken in the spheres of economic and social policy in 1985-1986. (4, p. 592)

By the fall of 1988, the government was forced to remove restrictions on the sale of liquor.

On May 5, 1986, the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR "On intensifying the fight against the extraction of unearned income" was issued. The authorities attacked the "shabashniki" and "grabbers", you banned the transport of products from one region to another. In the struggle of the local administration with "unearned income", the personal subsidiary plots of citizens suffered. As a result, food shortages have become even more acute.

The decree, and especially the zeal of the authorities in its execution, contradicted the USSR Law "On the Individual Labor Activity of the USSR", which was adopted on November 19, 1986 and entered into force on May 1, 1987. But even the first attempts to remove the iron bridle from private business ran into a hostile attitude from members of the Politburo. M.S. Solomentsev and V.M. Chebrikov feared that encouraging individual farming would undermine the collective farms and "cast a shadow" on collectivization. To which Gorbachev replied: “There are reports from everywhere: there is nothing in the stores. We are all afraid that socialism will undermine private economy. And that it will be blown up by empty shelves, are we not afraid? (7, p. 64)

Gradually, his “personnel revolution” gained momentum. A positive impression was made by getting rid of the elderly cohort of party and statesmen who advanced under Brezhnev. In 1985--1986. G. A. Aliev, V. V. Grishin, D. A. Kunaev, G. V. Romanov, N. A. Tikhonov lost important posts. But among the first in the central party apparatus they were received by N. I. Ryzhkov, E. K. Ligachev, E. A. Shevardnadze, L. N. Zaikov, B. N. Yeltsin. The changes came from top to bottom. The actions of the new first secretary of the Moscow CC CPSU, BN Yeltsin, who carried out a real purge of personnel in the city committee and district committees of the party, received a wide public outcry.

Over time, the pace and extent of change will start to cause concern. They began to be called "personnel purge", comparable to Stalin's "personnel revolution". (4, p. 591)

In three years, 85% of the composition of the Central Committee was renewed, which far exceeded the figures for 1934-1939, when they amounted to about 77%. The apotheosis of personnel reshuffles was the 19th party conference in 1988, when, after its completion, the remaining representatives of the “Kremlin elders”, including Gromyko, Solomentsev, and Dolgikh, who remained in the leadership, were removed from the Politburo and the Central Committee of the CPSU. (5, p. 167)

Simultaneously with personnel changes, the political renewal of society began, which was expressed primarily in the fight against corruption and the nomenklatura. Gorbachev's ideas in Moscow were promoted by B. N. Yeltsin, who replaced Grishin as first secretary of the Moscow regional committee of the CPSU, and declared: "We are undergoing such a restructuring in Moscow that there are not enough places in prisons for everyone we want to imprison." Of the 33 district committee secretaries in Moscow, 23 were removed, some of them several times. During Yeltsin's stay at the head of the Moscow organization of the CPSU, more than 800 trade workers were imprisoned for various crimes. The renewal of society was seen in the fight against corruption, while the methods of management and implementation of reforms remained directive. In fact, it was about party reform from above through the system of party state bodies. (5, p. 168)

Under the influence of all these factors, by the end of 1986 the economic situation in the country began to deteriorate rapidly. The course for "acceleration" in 1986 completely failed: a fourth of the enterprises did not fulfill their production plans, 13% of them were unprofitable. At the end of the year, an unprecedented budget deficit arose for the USSR, which amounted to 17 billion rubles. and continued to grow rapidly. Investments in the national economy began to be made through a hidden increase in prices and an increase in emissions. In January 1987, a decline in production began, which was never overcome, and which became the beginning of the deepest economic crisis. (6, p. 251)