It so happened that the history of Sweden is closely intertwined with the history of Russia. Recently, however, relations between the countries have become more friendly. But on the other hand, Europe has left its mark.

Military history of Sweden

The Swedes have always been militant and easy-going. For the most part history of sweden- this is story namely constant wars with all its neighbors, in different alliances and one by one. Only the death on the battlefield of the brilliant commander and King of Sweden Gustav II Adolf prevented the creation of the Great Confederation of Protestants in northeastern Europe.

Capital of Sweden

Stockholm, ancient, one of the safest cities in Europe. This is where the main royal residence is located. The largest city in the kingdom in terms of population, the center of more than two million agglomerations. A quarter of the country's gross domestic product is produced here. Stockholm is one of the best preserved old cities in Europe. And the largest center of Swedish tourism.

Population of Sweden

Nowadays Sweden is the most multiethnic of the Scandinavian countries. Population of Sweden only 80% are actually Swedes. This is only half of the total (15 million) Swedes living on Earth. In past centuries, the growth of the population of the kingdom was significantly restrained by constant wars, which required a huge number of recruits. Today in Sweden, as in most economically developed countries, population growth occurs almost exclusively due to immigration into the country. The birth rate is quite low.

State of Sweden

The current one is one of the constitutional monarchies of Europe. Legislative power is exercised by the Riksdag, the Swedish Parliament. The chief executive in the kingdom is the Prime Minister of Sweden, since 2006 he has been Fredrik Reinfeldt. In the life of Sweden, the state plays a significant role, since the policy of the kingdom is socially oriented.

Politics of Sweden

Based on the principles of non-alignment with military blocs and social support for the population, Swedish politics allows the country's economy to develop dynamically. The Kingdom has been part of the European Union since 1995, but retains, nevertheless, its national currency - the Swedish krona.

Language of Sweden

Belonging to the group of Germanic languages, Swedish is de facto the state language in the kingdom. Swedish language, like Swedish culture closely related to its historical development.

The history of Sweden is a description of the formation of the state in the past, which became Sweden in the Middle Ages. The territory of present-day southern Sweden was probably inhabited during the last ice age, when the ice cover no longer covered the entire area. Historical timelines usually begin with the settlement of Scandinavia, when the ice permanently retreated about 13,000 years ago. For the first time, the country began to be settled from the south from the territory of present-day Denmark, and later from other directions, and several thousand years later, all of modern Sweden was inhabited. Significant changes occurred during the arrival of the funnel-beaker culture about 6,200 years ago, as well as during the Bronze Age and Iron Age.

The names Svearike (Swēorice) and Svitjod ("people of the Svei") first appear in the Anglo-Saxon saga Beowulf (manuscript dates from the early 11th century), and are thought to have originally been used as names for an area of ​​uncertain size centered on a city under control the Svei tribe (this population was most likely first mentioned in manuscripts by the Roman historian Tacitus in 98 AD as "svioner").

Territory

Sweden in the 12th century to the conquest of Finland in the 13th century

Immediately before and during the early Middle Ages, the provinces in Mälardalen and around Vättern were united under a single king, but modern historians do not consider Sweden a stable state until the thirteenth century. Sweden during the early Middle Ages consisted of several loosely connected areas, which during the 11th century created joint military organizations (leidangs) along the Danish borders.

Swedish colonization of the coastal regions of Finland began in the 1250s, and after the conclusion of a peace treaty with Novgorod in 1323, Western Karelia became part of Sweden. Österland, who has the right to vote, has taken part in the election of Swedish kings since 1362. Gotland in medieval times was an independent state in alliance with the Swedes and the Swedish king in the 14th century until the beginning of three hundred years of Danish rule in 1361. In 1331, the then Helsingland (including modern Medelpad and Ongermanland) began to pay taxes to the king, the North Norrland coast began to be settled in the 14th century, and Lapland in the 17th century. Back in the 1490s, Russia began to lay claim to the lands north of Byureklubb of modern Skellefteo.

From the 15th century, Sweden was part of the Kalmar Union, although sometimes it had its own king, or it was ruled by regents. In the first half of the 16th century, the country withdrew from the Union.

During the 17th century, called the Golden Age, Sweden expanded its territories. Many conquered lands were subsequently lost after lost wars in the 18th century: Kexholm, Ingria, Estonia and Livonia went to the Russian Empire, Bremen-Verden to Hanover. In addition, Vyborg, owned by the Swedes since the Middle Ages, passed to Russia. Nevertheless, Jämtland, Herjedalen, as well as the island of Gotland, Skåne, Blekinge, Halland and Bohuslän were under Swedish rule from the middle of the 17th century.

As a result, the dissatisfaction of the Swedish troops increased even more, and after a coup d'état in 1809, King Gustav Adolf was deposed and replaced by his uncle Charles XIII.

In 1810 Sweden had 2.4 million inhabitants.

Union period (1809-1905)

In 1809, the Swedish parliament decided that Gustav IV Adolf and his descendants would not rule in Sweden. Instead, his uncle Charles XIII was elected king, but only after the new Constitution had been passed by Parliament. It included a new order of succession, as well as a new form of government. The new constitution was based on the idea of ​​separation of powers, although there was no talk of a parliamentary system yet. The king still retained certain legislative powers, and there remained a division of Parliament. But the basic civil liberties and rights were defined in the Constitution.

Since Charles XIII was old and had no heirs, it became necessary to choose an heir to the throne. In August, Prince Christian of Denmark was elected, but he died in 1810 due to an accident while riding. In subsequent elections, Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, the French marshal, finally arrived and was elected to the throne. In the autumn of the same year, he arrived in Sweden, converted to Protestantism, was greeted by Charles XIII, and as crown prince took the name Karl Johan. He became king in 1818 after the death of Charles XIII.

The Napoleonic Wars still affected Sweden. In 1807, Napoleon illegally occupied Swedish Pomerania during the Russian campaign. The new development of Sweden was established by Crown Prince Karl Johan, who began his reign with a complete reorientation of foreign policy in opposition to France. Sweden took part in an alliance against Napoleon and went, in turn, against Napoleon's ally Denmark. In the Treaty of Kiel in 1814, Denmark was forced to cede Norway to Sweden in exchange for Swedish Pomerania. Norway then declared itself an independent nation, forcing Charles XIV Johan to make a brief and mostly bloodless invasion of Norway. Thus, a Swedish-Norwegian union was created with one common king and a common foreign policy. After this last war, Karl Johan began to consistently pursue a policy of peace that laid the foundations for the Swedish policy of neutrality.

Flag of the Swedish-Norwegian Union (1844 - 1905)

The Napoleonic Wars hit the Swedish economy hard, leading to economic stagnation and a deep crisis. Sweden in the first half of the 19th century had an agrarian economy. But in the same century, industrialization began. The main reforms took place in the agricultural sector. Extensive land reform and others regulations changed the economic situation in agriculture and its culture. Bergslagen and other areas dominated by steelworks and mining have gone bankrupt as a result of new technologies and competition, mainly with the UK. One of the main infrastructure projects was the construction of the Göta Canal, which connected the Baltic Sea and the Kattegat.

At the same time, Sweden was flourishing in the cultural and scientific fields. Compulsory elementary school education was introduced in 1842. The law required all municipalities to establish schools for local children. In practice, however, almost all children were in school before the law was passed.

Rising agricultural productivity and rising living standards led to rapid population growth. Between 1815 and 1850 the population increased from 2.5 million to 3.5 million. Population growth occurred mainly in rural areas. In 1850, 90% of the population still lived there, which began to create great social problems. The solution was carried out mainly through emigration, primarily to the United States since 1840. Emigration became even more widespread after the 1860s and reached its peak in 1880, disappearing almost completely at the beginning of the 20th century. During this time, about 1.2 million emigrants left the country. About 200,000 returned, often with capital and new knowledge.

Charles XIV Johan led a strict conservative domestic policy. After the death of the king in 1844, new opportunities for reform appeared. They were implemented by King Oscar I and his successor Charles XV. The economy was liberalized, and a number of social reforms were carried out, initiated, in particular, by Louis de Geer. In a major constitutional reform of representation in 1865-1866, the old unicameral Riksdag was replaced by a bicameral parliament. The new parliament consisted of 315 members and was convened annually. Both chambers had veto power. The second chamber of 190 deputies was elected in a general election in which only men could vote. Overall, only 20% of the male population had the right to vote. The first chamber was elected in indirect elections and represented the aristocracy. The main political struggle at the end of the 19th century was over defense, customs, voting rights, and the Swedish-Norwegian union.

In the 1870s there was a major breakthrough in industrialization. The expansion of the railway network and the emergence of new technologies in production led to the exploitation of new iron deposits in northern Sweden. At the same time, the forestry sector experienced strong growth in production and the pulp and paper industry was booming. New inventions led to the creation of a number of enterprises in mechanical engineering, such as LM Ericsson, Asea, Bofors, SKF, as well as Alfred Nobel's company for the production of nitroglycerin. In the same time Agriculture experienced a serious crisis.

In the second half of the 19th century, there was a serious transition of the country towards a new industrial society. The population continued to grow rapidly: from 3.5 million in 1850 to 5.1 million in 1900. During this time, many popular movements were founded: the non-conformist revivalist movement, the sobriety movement, and the labor movement. These new institutions were of great political importance in Sweden for a long time, not least because of them the Social Democrats were founded in 1889. Most of the population did not yet have the right to vote, but the demand for suffrage reforms began to sound louder towards the end of the century. Social critic August Strindberg was important in newspaper publishing.

The accession of Oscar II to the throne in 1872 marked a shift from traditional friendship with France to a more pronounced turn against Germany during foreign policy. This was reflected both in military matters and in the spheres of economy, science and culture. The most difficult political problem was relations with Norway, which gradually focused more and more on the creation of national autonomy. Norwegian ambitions for independence eventually led to a crisis and the dissolution of the union in 1905.

Democratic breakthrough (1905 - 1920)

The suffrage movement that emerged in the 1880s was represented by social democrats and liberals. The introduction of compulsory military service was a strong argument, summed up in the slogan "One man, one vote, one gun". In 1907, universal suffrage for all men (with some restrictions) was finally introduced in the parliamentary second chamber. Class tensions, however, caused a large general strike in 1909, widening the gap between socialists and liberals or conservatives. The most important issue domestic policy was a question of defense. When the liberal government of Karl Staaf cut defense spending in favor of a policy of social reform, there was a serious standoff with the conservatives. Even King Gustav V took an open stance on the issue of defense, which caused a constitutional crisis.

Swedish writing was simplified after a spelling reform in 1906.

World War I

After the outbreak of the First World War, the opposition supported the new government. The country declared neutrality, but decided to stimulate trade, mainly with Germany, which led to a limited blockade of the Entente. The blockade, together with food exports, caused food shortages. A famine broke out and a radical change took place in politics. The success of the socialists in the elections in the second chamber in 1917 led to the creation of a liberal-socialist coalition government, which was another important step towards democratization.

Influenced by the defeat of Germany, as well as voting reforms and revolutionary sentiment in Europe, a new electoral reform was carried out. The so-called universal and equal suffrage for all, including women, was finally introduced in 1919. However, some groups continued to be disenfranchised, such as social assistance recipients.

Sweden in the period 1920 - 1945

Prime Minister Hjalmar Branting

The first elections under the new voting rules were held in 1921. A new government was formed with the Social Democrat Hjalmar Branting as prime minister. In terms of demographics, Sweden was characterized by population growth, as well as migration from the countryside to the cities. In 1917 the population increased by 1 million, reaching 6.8 million in 1947. The population of Stockholm grew incredibly fast. The urban housing shortage was a difficult problem, as was unemployment. From a political point of view, the time was very turbulent, with short and changing parties at the head of government. The constitution and rules of politics continued to change rapidly. The first reforms were aimed at creating a welfare state.

The Second World War

During World War II (1939-1945) Sweden's official position was neutral. The goal of remaining neutral was to avoid being drawn into the war. There were several factors put forward as reasons for Sweden to do so. Among them are the general course of events during the war, Sweden's historical ability to remain neutral in international conflicts, the arms race, and Sweden's concessions to the German Nazi regime (for example, regarding the transport of military personnel throughout the country). During the war, there was a shortage of many vital imports, and so a ration card system was introduced. Most of the food was rationed, such as gasoline, firewood and many other things. In order to make up for the lack of gasoline, many gas-powered vehicles were also built.

Post-war period (1945 - 1968)

The post-war period began with the end of World War II in 1945. During the Second World War, Sweden partially returned to an agrarian society with full self-sufficiency, but after the war, again set a course for urbanization. Sweden before World War II was primarily a country of departure, by the way, many Swedes immigrated to North America, but this trend was reversed during and after World War II. Sweden first accepted war refugees, including those from the Baltic states, and war children from Finland. Since the late 1940s, Sweden has again become a country of immigration. Until the 1950s, Sweden's population was very ethnically homogeneous compared to other industrialized countries. Since the second half of the 1950s, large-scale labor migration began, primarily from countries such as Finland, Italy, Yugoslavia, Greece and Turkey.

Literature, culture and media

In the post-war period, the Swedes were one of the most reading nations along with the Norwegians, Finns and Icelanders. There were many well-stocked libraries in the 1950s. Among the most famous writers can be mentioned Astrid Lindgren, Harry Martinson, Vilhelm Muberg, Schöwall and Vale. In the 1940s, comics were initially met with dismay, as they were seen as serving to spread unhealthy values. Swedish poetry in the 1940s developed within the framework of the so-called incomprehensible rivalry and was intended primarily for the initiates. Harry Martinson published his epic Aniara in 1956, based on the anxiety that existed after the explosions of atomic and hydrogen bombs.

For a long time there was only one radio channel, which was distinguished by strong conservatism. Friday news always began with the words "His Majesty the King held a meeting of the Cabinet of Ministers today." The most famous radio presenter was Sven Jerring, who until 1972 headed the "Children's Mailbox". In 1951, the Swedes participated in various events, such as Mrs. Free Day, when the wives took the day off and the men ran the house. In 1955, the second radio channel P2 began broadcasting. During the 1950s, Swedes sometimes turned on Radio Luxembourg to listen to contemporary pop music. But on March 7, 1961, the radio monopoly was seriously challenged, and Radio Nord began to broadcast from neutral waters. Regulations were put in place to prevent the spread of pirate radio, and on May 7, radio tuning began, which would become P3. She immediately returned a third of the departed listeners.

In 1956, regular television broadcasts began after three years of test transmissions. During the 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden, most people didn't have a TV. The number of cinemas has been drastically reduced. Between 1956 and 1963, the number of visits to the cinema was halved. In 1963 the Swedish Film Institute was founded.

swedish sin

The image of "Swedish sin" began to spread around the world in the 1950s, and this was a paradoxical phenomenon, since the proportion of illegitimate children in the 1940s and 1950s was the lowest in the entire 20th century. However, such issues began to be discussed more openly than in the past, as society became more and more secular. In an article published in the journal English language in 1955, Sweden, with its birth control, abortion and promiscuity, was described as a stronghold of sin on earth. This, of course, is not true - but the distribution of the article had serious consequences, and in the subsequent Swedish discussion, allegedly high level suicide along with "unnatural" social protection and welfare. Swedes have stated in verbal debate that they are no more immoral than others, even if they were more open about their sexuality. All this has contributed to the fact that the "Swedish film" has become almost synonymous with pornography in some countries. Sweden first introduced free abortions in 1975.

Sport

Boxing champion Ingemar Johansson

Unlike most other countries, Swedish conscripts did not have to participate in battles. So there were many strong young people, and success in sports was not long in coming. The 1948 London Olympics were a huge success, with Sweden finishing second in the unofficial standings. In 1959, the World Heavyweight Boxing Championship was held between Ingemar Johansson and Floyd Patterson in New York. Since boxing was banned from Swedish radio and television, those who wanted to hear the game tuned into Radio Luxembourg.

Politics

On July 31, 1945, the national unity government that had ruled Sweden during World War II was dissolved and Per Albin Hansson formed a socialist government. After his death on October 6, 1946, Tage Erlander became prime minister, retaining his position until 1969. The Social Democrats were alone in the cabinet until 1951, when a coalition government was formed along with the Agrarian Party. In 1964, the Christian Democratic Party was founded, led by the prominent figure Levi Petrus. The party was successful in the Swedish municipal elections in 1966.

The Swedish economy was very strong during most of this period compared to the devastated rest of Europe after World War II. Sweden also had favorable demographic situation when a significant portion of the population was of working age. The Kingdom accepted aid from the United States under the Marshall Plan, and in post-war years sent a large amount of food to Germany. The metal and woodworking industry has become more technically advanced. The role of agriculture and fishing in the Swedish economy has declined. Due to urbanization, a housing crisis began to be felt in large cities. This was one of the contributing factors that the state launched a program in 1965 that now accounts for about a quarter of Swedish housing construction. Other major investments in urban infrastructure include the redevelopment of the Norrmalm district in Stockholm and the construction of the Stockholm Metro. The Swedish Road Administration has also begun building highways near major cities.

Sweden in the period 1968 - 1991

Swedish exports were successful in the record 1945-1974. and reached its peak between 1968 and 1973, when Sweden was in second or third place in terms of GDP per capita. The labor shortage was solved with the help of labor migration, including from Finland and Southern Europe. Until the 1970s no major refugee migration took place. But the situation changed in 1973 after the onset of the oil crisis, the subsequent industrial crisis and the deepening crisis in the shipbuilding and textile industries that began in the 1960s. There were six major devaluations of the Swedish krona between 1976 and 1982 to keep employment high, but this did not solve the structural underlying crisis as no structural reforms were carried out. Sweden was in an economic boom called the "Happy 1980s", creating an overheating economy and a further real estate bubble in the late 1980s. In 1990, the government proposed a containment policy that would keep inflation in check. This marked the end of the Swedish model, where high employment was the main goal of economic policy.

Modern period (since 1991)

This period began with the deepening of the financial crisis in Sweden in 1990-1994. and the elimination of credit controls that created the real estate price bubble in the 1980s. This and tax cuts doubled the public debt from 44% to 78% of GDP. Politicians believed in fixing the krone in order to later join the euro area and made unsuccessful attempts to defend the kingdom against currency speculators like George Soros.

The crisis was accompanied by sharp contractions in the public sector, and a floating exchange rate was introduced in 1992 in a short time to curb inflation in Sweden. This combined with the increase in immigration to Sweden in 1993-1994. contributed to an increase in unemployment from 2% in 1991 to 10% in 1993, and has never come close to the 1992 level since. As a consequence, the proportion of children in financially vulnerable households was at an all-time high (21-22%) in 1996-1997. The baby boom ended in 1993 and the birth rate reached its lowest point in 1998-1999.

The depreciation of the krone generated large export earnings, which allowed the economy to recover in the late 1990s. Sweden led the way in the 1990s with an IT boom that turned into an economic bubble. In particular, the IT and telecommunications industry was hit hard by the stock market crash in 2000, but industrial exports and the country's finances recovered in the 2000s. Sweden was slightly affected by the global financial crisis that began in 2008.

Important political events were EU membership in 1995 after a referendum in 1994, and accession to the euro area in 2003, as well as the murder of Anna Lindh in the same year. Several new parties entered parliament: the Green Party from 1988 to 1991. and in 1994, Christian Democrats in 1991, New Democracy in 1991-1994. and Democrats of Sweden in 2010.

Based on information sites https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sveriges_historia "History of Sweden", http://imagebank.sweden.se "Official images of the Bank of Sweden" and others.

The history of the Kingdom of Sweden is full of a wide variety of events that more than once unusually dramatically changed the fate of the state: Sweden either became the most powerful power in Europe, or turned into an insignificant, inconspicuous entity on the world political map. Historians prefer to consider the development of Sweden outside the framework of a pan-European periodization. This is due to the special historical path she followed.

The main difference between Sweden was, perhaps, the absence of serfdom, which dominated all of Western Europe in the era of feudalism. Slavery, if considered as private property per person, departed here along with the Vikings, and, despite the huge number of peasants living in the country, the threat of its return arose only in the 17th century, when the burden of taxes during the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) became unbearable for ordinary residents, and the state treasury became so impoverished that crown lands began to be given away and sold to representatives of the upper classes. However, the strength of the peasantry turned out to be so great that they managed to achieve the reduction of land - thus, the nobility was able to retain only their old possessions, which meant only the status of a large landowner, and not a feudal lord.

As for torture and executions, in comparison with Europe, Sweden was the least cruel country. Even the so-called witch trials, which claimed the lives of tens of thousands of people throughout Europe (in Germany alone, about 20-30 thousand people were destroyed), in Sweden they were reduced to only a small one, as a result of which about three hundred people suffered; others were sentenced to a shameful punishment, later often cancelled. Another unusual feature of the Swedish trials was that during the trial the testimonies of small children were taken into account, and as soon as their unreliability was proved, the charges and, consequently, the trials suddenly stopped.

At present, it is customary to distinguish the following periods in the history of Sweden: - ancient times (from the Ice Age to 1060), including, among other things, the Vendel period (550-800), replaced by the famous Viking Age (800-1060) ;
- Swedish Middle Ages (1060-1521);
- New time, within which the period of the Reformation (1521-1611), the era of Great Power (1611-1718), the era of freedoms (1719-1792), the Gustavian era (1772-1809), the last stage of the estate society (1809- 1866), the era of the industrial revolution with the agrarians in power (1867-1905), the time of the democratic breakthrough (1905-1920) and, finally, the democratic period that continues to this day.

Antiquity and the Viking Age

The first settlements appeared on the current Swedish land about 12 thousand years ago (the oldest site discovered in this northern country belongs to this time), when hunters came to the territory of Southern Sweden, which looked more like a tundra (according to many modern researchers, the ancestors of the Sami) . In those days, almost the entire territory of today's country was covered with several kilometers of ice; The Baltic Sea was more like an inland lake, and Denmark could be reached without the help of boats, along a narrow isthmus connecting the future peninsula to the continent.

Between the 4th and 6th centuries. there was a Great Migration of Peoples, which also affected the territories of the future Sweden. Southern Scandinavia was settled by the Getae, whose land became known as Getaland, in central Sweden (primarily around Lake Mälaren), the Swedes settled - their land was called Svealand. It was these peoples, united, who subsequently formed the Swedish people.

The neighborhood of the Getae and the Svei lasted for quite a long time, even these peoples chose the king together, although the decisive vote always remained with the Svei. For example, in 1125, when the Getae chose Magnus the Strong, the son of the Danish king, as king, the Swedes opposed and expelled him from the country. The possessions of the two tribes broke up into small principalities, but the obgitsy was located first in Birka, and then in Old Uppsala, where the main sacrifices and councils, or silences, took place. The growing role of Upeala allowed, over time, the local king Ingjald from the Ungling family to subjugate other petty rulers - thus the beginning of the birth of the Swedish state (VIII century) was laid.
Another Germanic tribe represented in Scandinavia, but not interested in moving north, is the Gotlands, who were, apparently, the ancestors of the Goths, who migrated from Gotland to Poland and reached the borders of the Roman Empire in the first centuries of our era.

The time of the migration of peoples was far from calm: small tribes constantly attacked each other, and, in addition to dwellings, fortifications also had to be built, where one could hide in case of raids. Such fortresses - borg have been preserved in Sweden to this day: stones are laid in a ring, forming a relatively high wall.
Slowly passions subsided, scattered tribes gradually united into small, hard-to-manage states with shopping malls throughout Scandinavia - Hedeby in Denmark, Birka in Sweden, Kaupang in Norway. It was around these centers that a force began to form that horrified all neighbors and even today is perhaps of the greatest interest to historians and archaeologists. This force was the Vikings - cruel barbarians, who perfectly mastered navigation and for a long time grew rich due to the ruin of nearby countries. It was thanks to their raids, in particular, in the period from 800 to 1140, more silver accumulated on the current Swedish island of Gotland than anywhere else in the world. In general, the archaeological finds of the Viking Age for the most part consist of noble metals - primarily silver, 65% of which was found in Gotland. Historians explain this fact quite simply: the strategically convenient position of the island in the Baltic Sea led to the fact that the Vikings, returning from their campaigns to the east, could not bypass it, which allowed the population to instantly get rich. Local residents, leading their own economy, were not able to use their wealth, and therefore they were hiding in the ground - so to speak.

Many believe that the Vikings were ruthless barbarians who ravaged cities and villages and destroyed everything in their path. In fact, these people knew how to perfectly adapt to the situation, turning, based on circumstances, either into merciless robbers, or into skilled merchants, or into brave colonizers, or into emigrants. Today, historians agree, perhaps, on one thing: the Vikings moved both west and east - depending on their place of residence, ^ it is truly known that the ancestors of modern inhabitants of Norway, faaHuu and the southern provinces of Sweden went on campaigns in a westerly direction, reaching no only to Iceland and Greenland, but also to the borders of present-day America, which at that time received the name Vinland. Those who lived along the central coast of the Baltic Sea preferred to move east - their paths stretched along the Russian rivers as far as Constantinople.

Why did such successful campaigns stop? Apparently main reason was the establishment of trade relations between the Muslim and Christian worlds. Aelo is that after the Arab expansion, the Mediterranean Sea ceased to be peaceful and merchants were forced to look for new ways through Northern Europe. When did Europe in the 11th century A wave of crusades swept over, the Mediterranean Sea reopened to merchant ships and the need for roundabout routes through the north disappeared. In addition, numerous diseases spread in Europe, affecting, of course, the Vikings who were on the voyage - the last major campaign, which took place in the 1040s. led by Ingvar, was unsuccessful, since most of its participants, including Ingvar himself, died of various diseases.
Today it is generally accepted that the Viking Age ended in 1060 - just at that time the last king of the Swedes Olof (Olaf) Shetkonung (Skötkonung, i.e. Breast King), who converted to Christianity and the whole country, reigned in the weakened state.

Almost nothing is known about the early rulers of Sweden. According to the sagas, for several centuries the state was ruled by the Ungling clan (sometimes called the Uppsala clan), whose representatives, according to legend, were the descendants of the god Frey. Of course, all historians doubt the authenticity of such versions, and only some of the rulers mentioned in various sources are today recognized as historical figures - first of all, Eric VI the Victorious (? - 995, king of the Svei since 980) and Olof Shetko -nung (? - 1022, king since 995).

The Uslings were replaced by the Stenkils (1060-1120), who held the throne for less than a century. Then the power went to Sverker the Elder (1153-1156), who founded the Sverker family, which ruled in a fierce struggle with the Eric family during 1153-1249. Among the kings of these dynasties, Eric IX the Saint (1150-1160) became especially famous. He organized an unsuccessful crusade to Finland and was killed by conspirators in a church while praying. Now Eric IX the Saint is considered the heavenly patron of Stockholm and all of Sweden. The last of the opposing dynasties-rules was Eric XI of the Eric family (1222-1229, 1234-1250). After his death, Jarl Birger became the ruler, and the Volkung dynasty (1250-1359) ascended the throne, after the suppression of which the period of non-dynastic kings (or, as they were called here, regents) began in Sweden, which lasted until 1523. This year power in the country was seized by King Gustav I, who founded the great dynasty of Vasa (Vasa) (1523-1654).

Queen Christina, the last of the Vasa dynasty, abdicated in 1654 in favor of her cousin Charles X Gustav of the Palatinate, who in 1650, by virtue of the queen's celibacy, was elected heir to the Swedish throne by the Riksdag. He became the founder of the Palatinate-Zweibrücken dynasty (1650-1720). The last king of this dynasty was Charles XII (1697-1718), well known to us, after whose unexpected death the throne passed to his sister Ulrika Eleonora. In less than two years of independent reign, she abdicated in favor of her husband (and distant relative) Frederick I of Hesse-Kassel (1720-1751), remaining only the queen consort. This marriage was childless, and at one time the grand-nephew of Ulrika Eleonora, Karl Peter Ulrich of Holstein-Gottorp, was considered the heir to the throne. It was prepared for the Swedish kings. But the boy was at the same time the only direct heir to Emperor Peter I and the nephew of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, who summoned him to her court and declared him her successor. In 1762 he ascended the Russian throne under the name of Peter III.

The Swedish crown was inherited by another representative of the Holstein-Gottorp family - Adolf

Frederick (1751-1771), uncle of the Russian Empress Catherine II. The Holstein-Gottorp dynasty was on the Swedish throne until 1818. The last king of this dynasty, Charles XIII (1809-1818), suffered from senile dementia and was childless.
In 1810, the Swedish aristocracy elected the Napoleonic marshal Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, Prince of Pontecorvo (1763-1844) as heir to the throne. He ascended the throne in 1818 under the name of Charles XIV Johan and became the founder of the current dynasty of Swedish kings, the Bernadottes.

Swedish Middle Ages (1060-1521)

In the Middle Ages, the formation of Sweden as a state took place, which was largely facilitated by the ruler Birger Jarl (1216-1266) from the Folkung family, the husband of the sister of King Eric XI. In 1250, his eleven-year-old son Valdemar (1239-1302, king of Sweden in 1250-1276) became king of Sweden, and Birger was the de facto ruler of the country under him. Officially, he was considered a jarl - the commander of the naval militia. Remaining in power from 1248 to 1266, Jarl was the first to issue laws that applied to all Swedes without exception, thereby largely contributing to the unification of the country.

Under Birger's other son, King Magnus Ladulos (1240-1290, king of Sweden from 1276), who overthrew his brother and imprisoned him for life, the confrontation between the royal power, noble families and the church intensified, and in order to reconcile with them, Magnus collected in 1279 the Thing - the people's assembly - the prototype of the modern Riksdag. At the Thing of 1279 in Alsna, a new estate was proclaimed - the so-called Frelse, or secular nobility. Its representatives (and those who were able to put a horse and knightly uniform into the service of the king) were exempted from paying taxes, but in return they were obliged to carry out knightly service. In the XIV century. the richest, most powerful and influential person in the history of Sweden was the local nobleman Bo Jonsson Gripp. No Swede has ever had such extensive possessions as he did. It was his huge fortune that, after the death of Jonsson, became a bone of contention between representatives of the Swedish nobility and the first non-dynastic king of German origin, Albrecht of Mecklenburg (c. 1340-1412, king of Sweden in 1364-1389), who in every possible way contributed to the growth of German influence. Dissatisfied with this state of affairs, the Swedes turned to the Dowager of Denmark, Queen Margaret, for help. In the Battle of Falkoping (1389), Albrecht was defeated and captured, and Margaret I (1353-1412, Queen of Denmark and Norway from 1387, Sweden - from 1389) was proclaimed "full lady and rightful mistress Sweden".

Like Sweden, Denmark and Norway were dissatisfied with the growing power of Germany in the Baltic region, and therefore Queen Margarita convened in 1397 in the city of Kalmar nobility from the three Scandinavian countries in order to conclude a common alliance in order to fight the greedy Germans. All three countries were guaranteed the preservation of their own laws, and only representatives of the noble families of these countries could occupy the main positions - foreigners were denied access to power. It was decided to choose a single ruler for the whole of Scandinavia. They became the great-nephew of Queen Margaret - Boguslav, who took the name Eric of Pomerania (1382-1459), and for Sweden - Eric XIII. He ruled independently from 1412 until 1439, when, in the course of a general uprising, he was removed from the throne. Eric was related to the Danish, Norwegian and Swedish royal families, but Queen Margaret remained their only direct representative (in fact, she ruled until her death).
Since the union of the three countries was concluded in Kalmar, it was called the Kalmar Union. True, very soon the union became ineffective, since the codes prescribed in the new constitution were constantly violated - in particular, foreign forces were involved in the government of states. Pretty soon, Sweden refused to put up with violations of the constitution and left the union several times. The country finally left the union in 1521, while Norway and Denmark were united until 1814.

Reformation era (1521-1611)

During the union period, uprisings broke out in Sweden more than once - supporters and opponents of maintaining the union of the three countries fought. The last rebellion, which had the character of a war of liberation, occurred in 1521 - it was he who led to the final disintegration of the union and served as a starting point for the Reformation in Sweden.
The uprising was started by Gustav I Vasa (1496-1560), who at the very beginning of his activity staked on the peasantry from the central regions of Sweden. True, Gustav did not succeed immediately in inciting ordinary people to revolt, and he, disappointed, went through the snowy forests to the Norwegian border. At this time, the inhabitants of the province of Dalarna (it was there that the future king was looking for support) changed their minds and sent several skiers after Gustav, who caught up with him near the town of Salen (Salen) and begged him to return back to Mura (Mora), where he was elected head of the province. Since then, the Vasaloppet ski run has been held annually in Sweden, exactly repeating the route covered by the founder of modern Sweden.

Having achieved the appointment of the chief military leader and ruler of Dalarna, Vasa abruptly changed his tactics, paying attention to the nobility and the church, which allowed him in 1523 to become the legitimate king of Sweden.
Inspired by success, Gustav immediately set about transforming the country. First of all, he drew attention to the church, whose wealth he needed to pay off public debts. The ideas of Martin Luther (1483-1546), who argued that the church, as a place of communication between man and God, should be deprived of wealth, and preaching should be given a central place in it, were most welcome in Europe. Gustav Vasa, inspired by the trends that exactly met his desires, set about reforms. The securialization of church lands and the closure of monasteries began. The lands were distributed to the nobles, noble estates were erected from the stones of the destroyed monasteries.
In order for the Lutheran teaching to spread as soon as possible in Sweden, Gustav Vasa ordered the translation of the Bible into Swedish, which made it easier for the new bishops - supporters of reformist ideas - to communicate with ordinary people.

Religious ideas existed in Sweden long before the advent of Christianity, which, by the way, came here quite late. The basis of Scandinavian mythology was the worship of the numerous relatives of the supreme god of war Odin, constantly sacrificing. Honoring death in battle, the Vikings went on new campaigns, terrifying their neighbors.

Tired of the constant raids, the Europeans were sure that only the conversion of the barbarians to a new faith could put an end to the robberies. For the baptism of pagans in Sweden in 830, the apostle of the Scandinavians, St. Ansgar (801-865), a Frenchman by birth, was sent. For almost a year and a half, he preached on the small island of Birka, located in the Stockholm archipelago, but his activities did not have the desired effect: several successfully converted to Christianity residents quickly returned to their usual gods and customs.
Attempts to convert the barbarians to Christianity were made throughout the century, and only with the accession in 993 of Olof Schötkonung, who converted to Christianity early, the new religion began to spread more and more among the Scandinavians. Over time, the Swedes even undertook three regional crusade against the Finns (in the XII, XIII and XIV centuries), as a result of which the Finnish lands turned into a Swedish province for many years.

After the death of Gustav Vasa, his eldest son Eric XIV (1533-1577, king of Sweden in 1560-1568) came to the throne. By the way, it was Gustav Vasa who introduced the dynastic succession to the throne. Eric XIV was an educated man with artistic inclinations, but already in the early years of his reign, he showed signs of a mental disorder, which eventually developed into schizophrenia. The king wanted to get new territories in other states and the right to manage not only the crown lands, but also the possessions that belonged to his duke brothers - Johan and Karl. In 1567, seized with suspicions about a conspiracy being prepared against him, Eric committed a wild massacre of the Sture noble family in Uppsala - three prominent representatives of this family were killed, after which Eric had a fit of temporary insanity. His brothers took advantage of this, and in 1568 Eric was overthrown . The former king and his family were imprisoned in Turku Castle in what is now Finland. Eric was poisoned two years later. Civil strife led to the fact that during the reign of the sons of Gustav Vasa, the economy was significantly undermined in the country. At the very end of the reign of his middle son, King Johan III (1537-1592, King of Sweden from 1568), inflation in Sweden reached 800%! During the reign of Johan, in 1570, a war began with the Russian kingdom of Ivan IV the Terrible, which lasted 25 years and brought victory to Sweden. Russia lost the entire coast of the Gulf of Bothnia and was forced to abandon the city of Narva. These were Sweden's first steps on the way to the loud status of a great power.

The era of great power (1611-1718)

The 17th and early 18th centuries in Swedish history received the name of the era of Great Power, since it was during this period that Sweden managed to achieve the greatest power and respect for its European neighbors. The heyday began with the accession of Gustav II Adolf (1594-1632, king from 1611), who, due to the sudden death of his father, had to take control of the state, being a minor. A talented diplomat and chancellor Axel Oxenstierna (1583-1654), who proposed and implemented numerous projects for the development of trade and industry in Sweden, became his guardian, mentor and assistant.
Oxenstierna made sure that the new king received a decent education: from birth, fluent in two languages ​​​​(Swedish and German), Gustav Adolf easily learned to speak four more. This was one of the most gifted monarchs that Sweden has ever known. He was equally good at fighting, persuading, and gaining trust and loyalty. These qualities manifested themselves already at the very beginning of his reign, when Gustav accepted the so-called royal obligations, promising to rely on the nobility led by Axel Oxenstierna in the future. Thus, the royal autocracy came to an end, and the contradictions between the king and the upper classes who wanted to rule disappeared.

Sweden received a new system of justice, and meetings of the Riksdag began to have a more or less orderly character, since it was established which issues of estate should be decided together with the king.
The changes also affected issues of religion: the new religious charter expressed the uncompromising attitude of the king towards the Catholics, who from now on began to be expelled from the country, those who refused to leave lost all rights,.

The country grew rich before our eyes, largely due to the mining of copper that became popular and very expensive. Sweden has become a world leader in the extraction of this metal, as hitherto unseen deposits were discovered in the central provinces of the country.
At the same time, taxes increased, as the wars of Gustavus Adolphus demanded considerable expenses, and for new and reconquered territories, Sweden sometimes had to pay a considerable ransom to its neighbors. The amount of the tax was set on the basis of the taxpayer, which even the king himself did not escape, giving 20% ​​of his maintenance to the state treasury.

Until 1648, Sweden was in a state of continuous war with its neighbors: Russia, Poland, Germany and Denmark. It was these wars that brought the country the power that it was to maintain for almost seventy years. As a result, Sweden received the lands of the Baltic region (thus depriving Russia of all ports in the Baltic) and some Danish provinces in the north, which today are considered an integral part of Sweden (in 1658, after the conclusion of the Roskilde Peace, the southwestern provinces of Denmark went to Sweden). The Swedes also gained Livonia, Western Pomerania, the mouth of the Oder, the city of Wismar, the Bremen and Verden episcopates (although Bremen itself still belonged to Germany) and a number of small German regions, which gave the new Swedish monarch the right to enter the German parliament.

Gustav II Adolf was killed in the battle of Lützen on November 6, 1632, leaving behind only a six-year-old daughter Christina (1626-1689, Queen of Sweden in 1632-1654), who, of course, was not yet able to govern the state. Nevertheless, she received a decent education (thanks to the same Axel Oxenstierne), which impressed many representatives of the upper classes of that time. Having reached the age of majority, Christina became a full-fledged queen. Vividly interested in political issues, she did not disregard theological problems, and Sweden was often visited by prominent philosophers - in particular, Rene Descartes (1596-1650), who lived in Stockholm in 1649-1650. and died there. It was Descartes, having a long conversation with Christina, who managed to convince her that Catholicism is a better religion than Lutheranism. The latter led to the fact that the queen abdicated, converted to Catholicism and left for Italy, where she spent the rest of her life. Christina left no heirs, but shortly before her abdication, she forced the Riksdag to recognize her cousin, Count of the Palatinate Carl Gustav, as heir to the royal crown of Sweden. However, after the abdication of the queen, the crown prince was still too small to rule the country, and power again passed into the hands of the aristocracy. After becoming king, Charles X Gustav (1622-1660, king of Sweden from 1654) proved himself to be an outstanding military leader who participated in the Thirty Years' War as a general. His son Charles XI (1655-1697, King of Sweden from 1660) also won a number of brilliant military victories, but became more famous for serious internal reforms that significantly strengthened the absolutist monarchy in Sweden.

The most famous monarch of Sweden was King Charles XII (1682-1718, ascended the throne in 1697), with whose reign the period of prosperity and power of the country ended not only in Scandinavia, but also in the Baltic and Europe. This monarch learned early that royalty is the grace of God, and therefore. Disagreement with his will was seen as treason.

It was the desire for omnipotence that let Karl down: there are still legends in Sweden that even in childhood a curse was allegedly placed on the little heir, which led him to the inability to make peace in time (Karl’s self-confidence left him hope for the possibility of much more favorable peace conditions) and constantly that encouraged him to continue the war. In fairness, it must be said that the king himself did not unleash a single war, and the Swedes are still grateful to him for preventing hostilities on the territory of their native country.

At first, the career of Charles XII was very successful: when Russia attacked the Swedish province of Ingria, starting the siege of Narva in order to change the border with Finland in favor of Russia, Charles and his army hurried to the rescue of his army and, despite the significant superiority of the Russians, won a brilliant victory . At the same time, there was a war with Poland, but the Poles, who wanted peace, could not convince Charles to accept their conditions. This, apparently, was the main mistake of the Swedish ruler: instead of taking advantage of the defeat of the Russians and finally defeating them, Charles sent an army to Poland, where the fighting went on for the next six years. This was taken advantage of by the young and energetic Russian Tsar Peter I, who managed to reorganize the Russian army in the shortest possible time. Then Peter again attacked the Baltic lands and even founded a new city, St. Petersburg, on the then Swedish territory.

Charles, meanwhile, managed to conquer Poland and force Polish king abdicate the throne. Only after that, Charles again turned his attention to the growing strength of Russia and in 1708 again went to war against her. His plans included the conquest of Moscow and the abdication of Peter.
Karl, no doubt, was an outstanding strategist, but the actions of Peter I were no less innovative: during the retreat, the Russians used the scorched earth tactics. As a result, a significant part of the Swedish army died from cold and hunger, and the reinforcements that entered the campaign did not have time to join Charles XII. On June 28, 1709, the famous Battle of Poltava took place. The king himself was wounded and was forced to flee to the Turks, to the Bendery fortress (now it is the Transnistrian Republic).

Karl considered Turkey a powerful ally, with the help of which he intended to defeat Russia - he even managed to convince the Turks to declare war on Russia. However, soon the sultan found the guest of honor too importunate and restless, and therefore ordered him to be arrested, and after the so-called fight in Bendery in 1713, Karl was taken away as a prisoner. But even there the king continued, wanting to control all the battles and independently resolve important issues. Charles was forced to leave the borders of his Turkish and return to Sweden by a slow postal message (by that time the king had not seen his homeland for more than fifteen years). Upon his return, he was finally able to realize the plight of his country: there was practically no money in the treasury, and in order to somehow remedy the situation, Charles created a new tax system. Now the so-called additional taxes appeared - that is, from now on, almost everything was taxed - for example, wigs (the king himself never wore them). In this there is a certain similarity with the main rival of Charles - Peter the Great, who received money both from people who wore beards and from people who had (that is, not blue-gray) eye color.

At the same time, Charles undertook another campaign - this time to the Norwegian border. He did not have time to reveal his goals, because during the siege of one of the fortresses he was killed. Perhaps, with a new campaign, he just wanted to take revenge or return the previously lost eastern lands; or maybe he wanted to secure the rear and gain new allies, still hoping to win back the Baltic coast lost in the war with Russia. It is also unknown whether the death of the king was an accident or a deliberate murder, in which not only the upper classes, who had almost lost their influence, but also ordinary people, were interested. The Swedes suffered greatly from endless wars - taxes, lean years, diseases led to the fact that many villages were left without a working male population for several decades. (In just 18 years of continuous wars, Sweden lost 200,000 people who fell in battle, were taken prisoner, died of starvation or during a plague epidemic.)

Eleonora (1688-1741, Queen of Sweden in 1718-1720), who replaced the childless Karl Ulrika on the throne, was the sister of the deceased king, but her accession was associated with a number of conditions put forward by the Riksdag - primarily with the loss of autocracy and her initial agreement with all decisions which the Riksdag had yet to adopt in the future. The main task was to restore the economy of the country, which was on the verge of bankruptcy. There was only one way to achieve this: an immediate cessation of wars and the conclusion of peace treaties. For the first time in a century, Sweden began to abandon its territorial acquisitions - naturally, for a fee. Many European states, also exhausted by wars, gladly agreed to such agreements.

The most difficult thing was to negotiate with Russia. Peter I forced the Swedes to cede all the Baltic possessions - Livonia, Estonia and Ingermanland, as well as part of Karelia and the Vyborg flax. True, it would be unfair to believe that peace with Russia brought only losses to Sweden: it was important that Russia pledged not to interfere in the domestic politics of its neighbor, including issues of succession to the throne. In addition, Livonia and Sweden were allowed to conduct duty-free grain trade with each other.

Era of Liberties (1719-1772)

The weak power of the new Swedish monarchs once again strengthened the positions of the Riksdag and the Council of State established by Magnus Ladulos, thereby laying the foundation for Swedish parliamentarism. Arvid Horn Bernhard (1664-1742) was chosen as chancellor - a supporter of a cautious policy aimed at maintaining peace with other states and restoring the economy. To the great surprise of all of Europe, Sweden quickly managed to get on its feet: the urban and rural population grew, agriculture rose, trade developed with other countries - including China, from where various luxury goods were delivered (such as tea, porcelain, silk and spices), which were then sold at auctions. It must be said that the development and prosperity of Swedish trade was also due to the fact that foreign ships were forbidden to import goods into Sweden that were not produced in the countries that own these same ships.
Cities burned during the wars were rebuilt; Manufactories began to flourish, especially textiles. At the same time, domestic industries were primarily encouraged, and in the manufacture of goods, mainly own raw materials were used - all this was done in order to reduce imports.

Despite the fact that Sweden gradually began to acquire new life, there were also dissatisfied with the policy of Arvid Gorn. The opposition that arose, which considered the chancellor too cautious, accused his supporters of neglecting defense and called their peace initiatives mere weakness. That is why those who supported Gorn got the nickname. Their opponents called themselves. Such a confrontation between two forces, each of which bore a certain name, was the prototype of future parties, and therefore today historians tend to consider the first political parties in Sweden. In this struggle, the victory was eventually won by those who, above all, wanted to restore Sweden to its former European power. Having come to power, the opposition first of all began to agitate the population for a war with an old enemy - Russia. It was not difficult to convince the Swedes of the need for this step: several leaflets and the murder in 1739 by the Russian military of a Swedish courier major who was returning from Turkey to Sweden did their job. A song was immediately composed about the murdered man, which told how he allegedly met in the next world with Charles XII, outraged by this incident and calling for revenge on the sworn enemy.

The Riksdag, who fully supported the new chancellor in his military aspirations, found an ally in the person of the Russian princess Elizaveta Petrovna (reigned in 1741-1762), who wanted to take the Russian throne and expressed dissatisfaction with the fact that Ivan VI was proclaimed tsar (reigned from October 1740 . to November 1741), who was only three months old. In 1741, the Swedes began to prepare the fleet and army for an attack on the enemy. However, the preparation was somewhat delayed, and just a couple of days after the troops nevertheless invaded Vyborg and Karelia, Elizaveta Petrovna carried out a coup d'état and was proclaimed empress. These promises were instantly forgotten, since now there was no need for the aid of the Swedes to the Rke. The Swedes quickly agreed to a truce and thereby renounced claims to their former possessions.

The enterprising Russians did not want to comply with the peace agreement and again occupied all of Finland. The peace concluded as a result meant for Sweden the loss of most of Finland, the strong influence of Russia and the choice of the heir to the Swedish throne, which was pleasing to her, and not Sweden. It was Adolf Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp (1710-1771, King of Sweden from 1751), the Russian heir to the throne.

Adolf Friedrich - or, as they began to call him in Sweden, Adolf Fredrik, at first maintained good relations with Russia, which eventually began to treat Sweden almost like a vassal state, which eventually led to a complete break of the Swedish king with the Russian court. At some point, offended Russia, having agreed with Denmark, began to threaten Sweden with a new war. However, the Swedes managed to come to an agreement with their southern neighbor in time, which, in turn, somewhat cooled the ardor of Russia - the old disputes gradually began to be eliminated, although not for long, since after the death of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, power in Russia passed to Peter III (reigned in 1761 - 1762), who was very soon overthrown by his wife, Catherine II (reigned in 1762-1796), who brought the Swedes a lot of trouble.

The economic and financial situation in Sweden left much to be desired. The royal couple almost completely lost their power - now all government decisions were made by the Riksdag, where the party was still in control, every now and then drawing the country into new senseless wars, which, however, ended quickly and to no avail. Trade experienced a period of stagnation; people suffered from lack of money and unemployment. Thus ended the era of freedom, and this is how Sweden got to the new king, Gustav III (1746-1792, ascended the throne in 1771).

Gustavian era (1772-1809)

Gustav III saw the restoration of state order as his main task. To do this, he needed to return all the lost royal powers in order to once again control the foreign and domestic policy of the state, without the Riksdag. To achieve this, in 1772 Gustav carried out a quick and bloodless coup, relying on the military royalists, in his opinion, the only way to put an end to the differences of the parties once and for all and return Sweden to its former freedom.

Many officers immediately supported Gustav. After only two days, the estates were forced to agree with the new one developed by Gustav. From now on, the king again fully and completely had the right to make important decisions, and the State Council (appointed, by the way, by the king himself) had only an advisory function. True, the king could start an offensive war only with the permission of parliament. It was this clause that later forced Gustav III, who was thirsty for war with Russia, to resort to trickery: since the king could not declare war on another state, he dressed the Swedish troops, thereby staging a Russian attack on one of Sweden's Finnish border points. Thus - defensive, not offensive - was unleashed, despite the rather cautious policy of Russia, which did not want to spoil relations with the Swedes while the war was being waged with Turkey. The war with Russia ended unsuccessfully for the Swedes. The Swedish army clearly lacked weapons, food supplies and manpower; in addition, the military abilities of Gustav III left much to be desired. Sweden was saved only by the fact that Russia was not interested in continuing hostilities - it was in danger not only from Turkey, but also from Prussia and England. Because the Swedish-Russian clashes stopped quickly, and, fortunately for the Swedes, state borders remained the same as before the start of the war.

While Gustav III was on the Swedish throne, the fate of Russia was in the hands of his cousin, Empress Catherine II. The relationship between the two monarchs cannot be called simple: despite the relationship, Catherine did not like her relative, considering him stupid and incapable of ruling the country. She even wrote a comic opera in which she ridiculed her cousin's military pretensions. Russia relied on the opposition to Gustav, providing support in every possible way to the classes opposed to him. However, observing diplomatic relations, the monarchs often exchanged expensive gifts. Huck, in 1777, Gustav III presented Catherine with a red ruby ​​the size of egg(260.86 carats), decorated with gold leaves with green enamel (now the stone is in the Kremlin's Diamond Fund). The Empress often gave her cousin exquisite and fine varieties of domestic vodka.

Catherine and Gustav were united by one common feature: the desire to enlighten their people and turn their countries into centers of culture and education (although the Swedish peasantry and even the middle class were not ready to accept the ideas of the Enlightenment). While Catherine the Great established orphanages, universities and public schools, opened hospitals and founded the Hermitage, Gustav, who was keenly interested in art, contributed to the development and prosperity of the Swedish language and Swedish literature over the twenty years of his reign (he personally wrote and staged 12 plays), created and reorganized a number of academies, founded the Royal Opera. In general, the theater played an important role in the life of Gustav III. The news that his father died unexpectedly and now he, Gustav, will have to take the throne, he received abroad, while at the Paris Opera. His life was also cut short at the opera - however, already in Stockholm, where a masquerade ball was held. It was there that the hired killer Johann Jacob Ankarström (1762-1792) was sent, who shot the king in the back. The king was seriously wounded and died two weeks later, which prevented the conspirators from carrying out the planned coup - moreover, both the killer and the organizers of the assassination were captured and brought to trial. Ankarstrem was executed after many days of cruel torture.

With the death of Gustav, the so-called Gustavian era did not end: the king was replaced by his son, Gustav IV Adolf (1778-1834, king of Sweden in 1792-1809). Officially, his policy was considered neutral, but in reality, the new Gustav was always inclined towards an alliance with France, which meant worsening relations with Russia. To improve ties with the eastern neighbor, Gustav's entourage tried to bring him together with the granddaughter of the Russian Empress Catherine II, but Gustav was not attracted by this prospect, and he, citing belonging to another faith, refused to marry her. It was a serious failure of the king, but Catherine's death in Sweden, which naturally freed the Swedes from fear of retribution for an unpleasant incident. From now on, Gustav Adolf could calmly strengthen relations with France, which promised Sweden large subsidies, but rather quickly the king became disillusioned with Napoleon's policy, refusing to support his undertakings. This once again put Sweden in a threatening situation: Denmark, friendly to France, declared war on it, and after Russia made peace with Napoleon, Russia, which soon proclaimed Finland its principality. For Sweden, this meant the loss of a third of the territory and a third of the army, as well as almost a quarter of the population. The unsuccessful foreign policy of the king led to his overthrow, and the government of the country passed into the hands of Gustav's elderly and childless uncle, Charles XIII (1748-1818, king of Sweden from 1809, and from 1814 also king of Norway).

Sweden in the 19th century

Almost immediately, the question arose about the heir to the throne, who, of course, had to be called from another country - in particular, in order to eliminate some internal differences. Initially, the bet was made on the Danish crown prince, who, however, suffered a blow even before he managed to become king. Then the eyes were again turned to France, and Napoleon's Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte was proposed as a possible ruler of Sweden. Charles XIII adopted a new chosen one, who adopted the Swedish name - Karl Johan. It must be said that the presence of his son played an important role in the appointment of Bernadotte as successor - this guaranteed Sweden a solution to at least one problem of domestic policy - the issue of succession to the throne after the death of now Karl Johan.

The reign of Charles XIV Johan and later his sons and grandsons turned out to be very favorable for the development of Sweden as a whole. It was a time of reforms (religious freedom was approved, universal suffrage for men was introduced, as well as compulsory primary education). Political structure also changed: the right to inherit the throne was now vested not only in men, but also in women; municipal self-government was introduced in rural areas; the riksdag had to meet every three years, and real parties arose in it; workers began to defend their rights, uniting in trade unions.

New factories, canals began to be built (the largest was the Geta Canal, linking the eastern and western parts of Central Sweden) and railways. Changes also affected the demographic sphere: in 50 years, the country's population increased by 60%, which was the highest population growth rate in the history of Sweden. However, such a sharp increase in the birth rate led to a shortage of food and, as a result, to the proletarianization of the population. People flocked to larger cities where there was a chance of getting a job, and many chose to leave the country altogether.

Throughout its history, Sweden has experienced several waves of emigration, but with rare exceptions, the Swedes could not find better life in other regions. Even in the days of the Vikings, the Scandinavians managed to get to the distant coast of America, which they called Vinland, and tried to populate it, but their attempts were unsuccessful.
In the middle of the XVII century. The Swedes did not miss the opportunity and founded two colonies: one - on the African Gold Coast (the fortress of Karlsborg was built there, lost in 1663), the other - on the alluring continent of the New World, in Delaware. The Swedes, unlike other nations, did not stake on the conquest of local tribes, but on establishing friendly relations and trade relations with them, which immediately brought the desired results: small enterprises arose in Delaware in strategically very convenient places. However, the Scandinavians did not pay due attention to their colony, and it had to grow mainly due to the local population. Without proper reinforcement, New Sweden failed to cope with strong militant competitors in the face of the Dutch and the British, and the fortress in America was irretrievably lost.

The next stream of Swedish emigrants had to wait almost two centuries; and the new wave was connected mainly with the increased population, which local agriculture was not able to feed. The country lost about a million Swedes who went to seek their fortune in the United States - in 1910 every fifth Swede lived there. Later, a small part of the Swedes returned to their homeland, but many preferred to reunite with relatives in the territory of America, which in every possible way encouraged the arrival of a new workforce, even offering to pay for the road. The American dream has often turned out to be just a beautiful fairy tale in reality, but most have never been able to overcome their own pride and return home with nothing. In Sweden, the outflow of the population in those years was perceived not as a disaster, but as a relief: now the peasantry had more opportunities to provide the country with food.

By and large, the rapid development of Sweden began only in the last decades of the 19th century. Before that, the country was one of the poorest in Europe. Stockholm was considered almost the dirtiest city; the difference between the poor and the small group of the rich was extremely great. Workers worked seven days a week and holidays for 60 hours a week for extremely low wages.

Nevertheless, the situation gradually began to change - largely due to the brilliant discoveries of individuals who glorified Sweden throughout the world. For example, a plant for the production of SKF ball bearings was opened. Gustave de Laval (1845-1913) invented the milk separator; Lare Magnus Eriksson (1846-1926) started the production of desk telephones; laureate Nobel Prize in Physics 1912 Niels Gustav Dahlen (1869-1937) fully automated lighthouses.

Alfred Nobel's most notorious invention was dynamite. Nobel himself, being a peace-loving man, amassed a huge fortune and created his own fund, the money from which is still used to present Nobel Prizes to those in various fields of activity.
In 1895, an electrified Railway- by the way, the first in Europe. Thanks to these changes, Sweden has become one of the richest countries in Europe. The concept entered the speech circulation for a long time, by the beginning of the 21st century, however, it did not justify itself.

Alfred Bernhard Nobel (1833-1896) - famous chemist and engineer, inventor of dynamite, founder of the Nobel Prize, which is awarded annually for achievements in literature, physics, chemistry, physiology and medicine and for promoting world peace.

In 1842, Alfred's family moved to St. Petersburg, as his father's business in Stockholm went bankrupt. At first, the family barely made ends meet, but soon a new family business began to generate income. The family returned to their homeland in 1863, and Al-Alfred Nobel Fred devoted himself to the study of explosives, especially nitroglycerin. During his life, Alfred patented 350 inventions.
In 1874, Alfred's brothers founded an oil production enterprise in Baku, in which Alfred acted as one of the financiers. Soon the company, with its several hundred representative offices in Ukraine, beyond the Urals and in Eastern Europe, became the second largest oil company in the world, second only to Rockefellers (Rockefellers Standard Oy). Dominance came to an end with the outbreak of the October Revolution, when enterprises were nationalized.

About 12% of Nobel's funds were received thanks to the oil company. In total, Nobel founded more than 30 businesses, many of which still exist today in one form or another.

Sweden in the 20th century

So, the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. turned out to be a turning point in the development of Sweden. In the 20th century, attention was mainly paid to the foreign policy of the country, which chose the position of not joining various alliances in peacetime and maintaining neutrality in time of war. True, this policy had to pass many tests of strength - for example, suspension from participation in the First World War led to serious power outages.
The Second World War did not turn into a famine for Sweden, but this time the Swedes' policy could hardly be called neutral. The government allowed German troops leaving (which often meant the transfer of troops to the territory of Finland and Norway) to pass through their country (in general, more than 2 million German soldiers crossed Sweden during the entire war); Swedish ore, so necessary for the production of weapons, was transported to Germany. The caution shown by the Swedes was even expressed in the fact that newspapers were withdrawn from the press, which contained criticism of Hitler or information that could anger the invaders of Europe. At the same time, Sweden, in order to show its neutrality, organized several charity events - in particular, grain deliveries to Greece and a procedure to save Jews persecuted by the Nazis. At the same time, the country has never violated another principle of its neutrality - the principle of refusing any alliances that imply secret agreements and negotiations.

According to Swedish politicians, maintaining neutrality during wars and not entering into alliances that oblige different countries to defend each other in the event of an attack did not at all mean being excluded from joining such organizations as the League of Nations (Sweden joined there in 1920), the UN (the country joined here in 1946), the European Free Trade Association (which Sweden joined 1959) and the European Union, which the country joined on January 1, 1995, by decision of the referendum. True, Sweden temporarily refused to replace native crowns with a single European currency - the euro, although the transition would be quite logical: until the first decade of the XIX in. all of Europe used common currencies. Krona, Sweden apparently preserved in part as a memory of the so-called Scandinavianism, which was based on the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bnorthern unity. By the way, another once-fashionable trend left a sense of solidarity that exists to this day in the form of organizations such as the Nordic Council and the association. Throughout the 20th century there was a constant democratization (and at the same time feminization) of Swedish society. A reform was carried out that abolished the polite form of address, thereby the government further emphasized the equal position of all members of society. Today's Sweden is far from the ideal model that many countries sought to recreate in their own countries some half a century ago. Large enterprises merged with each other, forming powerful conglomerates; the industry became more and more internationalized, so that in the late 1990s. a third of large companies were foreign-owned. In politics, too, not everything went as smoothly as before: in 1986, the Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme (1927-1986) was assassinated in the center of Stockholm, which was the first political assassination in Sweden since 1792, and in 2003 another political assassination took place. In the largest Stockholm department store, the assassination of Foreign Minister Anna Lind (1957-2003) took place.

In the elections of 2006, the Social Democratic Party, which was in power with short breaks for almost the entire 20th century, was defeated, which, apparently, will significantly affect the future policy of the state.

The self-consciousness of the Swedes, who perceived their homeland as a great power, was also shaken: before, their hearts were warmed by the thought of the great people who glorified Sweden, and pride in technological achievements. Now, the feeling of being a nation of little importance on the world stage is disheartening the Swedes and deepening their doubts about the correctness of the chosen path.