The founder of the school was Zenon (336 - 264 BC) from Kitia, on about. Crete. Once in Athens, he became interested in reading Xenophon's Memoirs of Socrates, and this changed his fate - the merchant became a philosopher. Ten years later, already as an established philosopher, Zeno began to expound his own teaching. His listeners gathered near the Painted Stoa - a portico on the Athenian agora - therefore they received the name "Stoics".
a). Greek Stoics: Zeno, Chrysippus, Cleanthes, Ariston.
In the philosophy of the Stoics, three parts are clearly distinguished: logic, physics, ethics.
Logics- the theory of right thinking, rhetoric - holds the system together.
Physics- natural philosophy of nature. World development is subject to necessity and is strictly determined. There is only one world, the fate of which (including man) is determined by the faceless God-Logos, who is also present in the mind of man.
Ethics- teaches how to live according to nature. Stoicism is an ethical and social doctrine. The Stoics did not study the man, what he is, they thought about how he is. it should be, pondered his possibility of becoming a sage. The moral perfection of man is the result of his mental exercises.
What is the highest good? Good there are four virtues:
· prudence
· moderation
· justice
· courage
Living according to nature is the same as living according to reason, i.e. virtuous.
God and nature are one and the same, and man is a part of this divine nature. The power that governs the world as a whole is the deity - Destiny-Logos. It permeates the whole world, it is the soul of the world, its mind. Partially, it is inherent in man. The world is in chains Necessities, or fate, it excludes freedom, incl. and the will of man. Freedom can only consist in realizing this necessity and submitting to it. Freedom is possible only for wise heroes who have realized the inexorable action of Fate.
Stoic Ideal- a person who resignedly, but courageously and with dignity (stoically) obeys the inevitability, i.e. fate or the will of the gods, remembering that it is senseless and futile to resist it. The sage is impassive, does not grieve, is sociable and is never alone. Apathy- indifference, dispassion - the principle of the philosophy of the Stoics. "Only one thing makes the soul perfect: the unshakable knowledge of good and evil, which is available only to philosophy - after all, no other science of good and evil explores."
b). Roman stoics. The Stoic school was most popular in Ancient Rome. The general mood in Rome was a conscious sense of the uncertainty and insecurity of a fluid and changeable existence that constantly threatens man. A constant threat to the well-being and freedom of any person from the poor to the king. It is significant that among the Stoics we will find representatives of all strata of Roman society. This is evidenced by the three most famous Roman Stoics. Marcus Aurelius- Emperor of the second century AD. Seneca- Roman senator Epictetus- a Greek who fell into slavery, then a freedman.
Seneca(5 BC - 65 AD). In history, the most famous of the Stoics.
Born in Spain in Cordoba. In his youth, he became interested in philosophy. In Rome, he became a senator, educator of Nero, and when he became emperor, Seneca temporarily became the actual ruler of the empire, and the richest man. In 65, he was accused of plotting against Nero, and by order of the emperor he committed suicide.
Seneca believes that philosophy should deal with both moral and natural questions, but only to the extent that this is of practical importance. The main thing for Seneca is the freedom of the spirit. Main stoic positions:
Passive- nothing can be changed, to obey fate, stoically withstanding its blows.
Active- domination over one's own passions, not to be in their slavery.
Human happiness lies in our attitude to events and circumstances. "Everyone is as unhappy as he thinks he is unhappy."
“We are not able to change such an order, but we are able to gain greatness of spirit,” Seneca says. The choice between good and evil in the realm of necessity is possible not in a practical, but in an emotional relationship to the world and to oneself. But this is not passive inaction. A person must soberly consider all circumstances and be ready for any turn of events, while maintaining peace of mind, common sense, courage, energy, and activity.
From the heritage of the Roman Stoics, the most famous and popular "Moral Letters to Lucilius" Seneca and the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius "Alone with myself".
Table 1. Differences between Stoicism and Epicureanism
Stoic philosophy
The response to the spread of Cynic ideas was the emergence and development of the philosophical school of the Stoics("Stoya" is the name of the portico in Athens where it was founded). Among the Roman Stoics, Seneca, Epictetus, Antoninus, Arrian, Marcus Aurelius, Cicero, Sextus Empiricus, Diogenes Laertes and others should be noted. Only the works of the Roman Stoics, mainly Seneca, Marcus Aurelius and Epictetus, have come down to us in the form of complete books.
Zeno of Kition is considered the founder of this philosophical school (not to be confused with Zeno of Elea, the author of the so-called "aporias" - paradoxes).
Stoic philosophy has gone through a series of stages.
Early standing (III - II centuries BC), representatives - Zeno, Cleanthes, Chrysippus and others;
Middle standing (II - I centuries BC) - Panettius, Posidonius;
Late standing (I century BC - III century AD) - Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius.
The main idea of the philosophical school of the Stoics (similar to the main idea of the philosophy of the Cynics) is liberation from the influence of the outside world. But unlike the Cynics, who saw liberation from the influence of the outside world in the rejection of the values of traditional culture, an asocial lifestyle (begging, vagrancy, etc.), the Stoics chose a different path to achieve this goal - constant self-improvement, perception of the best achievements of traditional culture, wisdom .
Thus, the ideal of the Stoics is sage who has risen above the fuss of the surrounding life, freed from the influence of the outside world thanks to his enlightenment, knowledge, virtue and dispassion (apathy), autarky (self-sufficiency). A real sage, according to the Stoics, is not even afraid of death; It is from the Stoics that the understanding of philosophy as the science of dying comes. Here the model for the Stoics was Socrates. However, the similarity of the Stoics with Socrates is only that they build their ethics on knowledge. But unlike Socrates, they seek virtue not for the sake of happiness, but for the sake of peace and serenity, indifference to everything external. This indifference they call apathy (dispassion). Dispassion is their ethical ideal.
However: “After the death of the parents, it is necessary to bury them as simply as possible, as if their body meant nothing to us, like nails or hair, and as if we were not indebted to him for such attention and care. Therefore, if the meat of the parents is suitable for food, then let them use it, as they should use their own members, for example, a severed leg and the like. If this meat is not suitable for consumption, then let them hide it by digging out a grave, or after burning it, scatter its ashes, or throw it away, not paying any attention to it, like nails or hair ”(Chrysippus). The list of such quotes can be continued, and they talk about the justification of suicide, the permissibility in certain situations of lies, murder, cannibalism, incest, etc.
At the heart of the Stoic world outlook, and all Stoic ethics as its conceptual understanding, lies fundamental experience of the finitude and dependence of human existence; an experience that consists in a clear awareness of the tragic situation of a person subordinate to fate. His birth and death; the inner laws of his own nature; drawing of life; everything that he strives for or tries to avoid depends on external causes and is not entirely in his power.
However, another, no less significant, experience of Stoicism is awareness of human freedom. The only thing that is completely in our power is reason and the ability to act according to reason; agreement to regard something as good or evil and the intention to act on it. Nature itself gave man the opportunity to be happy, despite all the vicissitudes of fate.
Stoic philosophy is divided into three main parts: physics(philosophy of nature), logic and ethics(philosophy of the spirit).
Physics of the Stoics compiled mainly from the teachings of their philosophical predecessors (Heraclitus and others) and therefore is not particularly original.
AT Stoic logic it was mainly about the problems of the theory of knowledge - reason, truth, its sources, as well as about proper logical questions.
To characteristic features stoic philosophy also include:
A call to life in harmony with nature and the World Cosmic Mind (Logos);
Recognition of virtue as the highest good, and vice as the only evil;
Definition of virtue as knowledge of good and evil and following good;
A call to virtue as a permanent state of mind and moral guide;
Recognition of official laws and state power only if they are virtuous;
Non-participation in the life of the state (self-restraint), ignoring laws, traditional philosophy and culture, if they serve evil;
Justification of suicide if it is committed as a protest against injustice, evil and vices and the inability to do good;
Admiration for wealth, health, beauty, perception of the best achievements of world culture;
High aestheticism in thoughts and actions;
Condemnation of poverty, disease, poverty, vagrancy, begging, human vices;
Recognition of the pursuit of happiness as the highest goal of man.
The most famous representatives of Stoic philosophy were Seneca and Marcus Aurelius.
Seneca(5 BC - 65 AD) - a major Roman philosopher, educator of Emperor Nero, during whose reign he exerted a strong and beneficial effect for government affairs. After Nero began to pursue a vicious policy, Seneca retired from public affairs and committed suicide.
In his works, the philosopher:
He preached the ideas of virtue;
urged not to participate in public life and focus on yourself, your own spiritual state;
Welcomed peace and contemplation;
He was a supporter of life invisible to the state, but joyful for the individual;
He believed in the limitless possibilities for the development of man and mankind as a whole, foresaw cultural and technological progress;
He exaggerated the role of philosophers and sages in government and all other spheres of life, despised the simple and uneducated people, the "crowd";
He considered the moral ideal and human happiness to be the highest good;
I saw in philosophy not an abstract theoretical system, but practical guide on the management of the state, social processes, on the achievement of happiness in life by people.
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus(121 - 180 AD) - the largest Roman Stoic philosopher, in 161 - 180 years. - Roman Emperor. Wrote a philosophical work "To myself."
To the main ideas of the philosophy of Marcus Aurelius relate:
Deep personal respect for God;
Recognition of the highest world principle of God;
Understanding God as an active material and spiritual force, uniting the whole world and penetrating into all its parts;
Explanation of all the events taking place around the Divine Providence;
Vision as main reason the success of any state undertaking, personal success, the happiness of cooperation with the Divine forces;
Separation of the outer world, which is not subject to man, . and the inner world, subject only to man;
Recognition as the main cause of happiness individual person- Bringing his inner world in line with the outside world;
Separation of soul and mind;
Calls for non-resistance external circumstances, to follow fate;
Reflections on the finiteness of human life, calls to appreciate and maximize the opportunities of life;
Preference for a pessimistic view of the phenomena of the surrounding reality.
Stoicism is a philosophy for strict people. The point, however, is not to be harsh, but to accept life as it can be: unpleasant or joyful. Bad things happen and we shouldn't try to avoid them.
Questions and tasks for self-control
1. Explain the origin of the word "stoic".
2. What is the main idea of Stoic philosophy? What is fatalism?
3. What is positive about the fatalistic view of the world?
4. What is stoic happiness?
In ancient philosophical systems, philosophical materialism and idealism were already expressed, which largely influenced subsequent philosophical concepts. The history of philosophy has always been an arena of struggle between two main trends - materialism and idealism. The immediacy and, in a certain sense, the straightforwardness of the philosophical thinking of the ancient Greeks and Romans make it possible to realize and more easily understand the essence of the most important problems that accompany the development of philosophy from its inception to the present day.
In the philosophical thinking of antiquity, in a much clearer form than it happens later, worldview clashes and struggle are projected. The initial unity of philosophy and expanding special scientific knowledge, their systematic selection explain very clearly the relationship between philosophy and special (private) sciences. Philosophy permeates the entire spiritual life of ancient society; it was an integral factor in ancient culture. The richness of ancient philosophical thinking, the formulation of problems and their solution were the source from which the philosophical thought of subsequent millennia drew.
Lecture five . MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY
Medieval philosophy, breaking away from one mythology - pagan, was captured by another mythology - Christian, becoming a "servant of theology", but retained the character of a holistic, all-encompassing world miro-views. The chronological framework of medieval philosophy is determined, of course, by the time span of the Middle Ages itself. The beginning of the Middle Ages is attributed to the final fall of Rome and the death of the last Roman emperor, the infant Romulus Augustulus in 476. The standard periodization is the 5th-15th centuries, a thousand years of the existence of medieval culture.
When and how did the Middle Ages begin? - this era begins when the corpus of texts of the Old and New Testament acquires the status of the only unconditional text.
In contrast to antiquity, where truth had to be mastered, the medieval world of thought was confident about the openness of truth, about revelation in Holy Scripture. The idea of revelation was developed by the Church Fathers and enshrined in dogmas. Thus understood, the truth itself strove to take possession of man, to penetrate him. Against the background of Greek wisdom, this idea was completely new.
During the Middle Ages, there was a philosophical struggle in Europe and the Middle East. On one side was the authority of the church, which believed that religious dogmas should only be accepted on faith. On the other side stood religious philosophers who sought to combine religious ideas with philosophical ones taken from the teachings of the Greek classics Plato and Aristotle.
It was believed that a person was born in truth, he must comprehend it not for his own sake, but for its own sake, for God was it. It was believed that the world was created by God not for the sake of man, but for the sake of the Word, the second Divine hypostasis, the incarnation of which on earth was Christ in the unity of Divine and human nature. Therefore, the far-off world was originally thought to be built into the higher reality; accordingly, the human mind was built into it, partaking of this reality in a certain way - due to the innateness of man into the truth.
Communion Mind is the definition of medieval reason; the function of philosophy is to discover the right ways for the implementation of the sacrament: this meaning is contained in the expression "philosophy is the servant of theology". Reason was mystically oriented, since it was aimed at revealing the essence of the Word that created the world, and mysticism was rationally organized due to the fact that the Logos could not be represented otherwise than logically.
In the history of medieval philosophy, various periods are distinguished: patristics(II-X centuries) and scholasticism(XI-XIV centuries). In each of these periods, rationalistic and mystical lines are distinguished. The rationalistic lines of patristics and scholasticism are described in detail in the relevant sections, and we have combined the mystical lines into an article. mystical teachings of the Middle Ages.
Along with Christian, there was Arabic, i.e. Muslim and Jewish medieval philosophies.
, 1st–2nd centuries AD). Whole compositions have been preserved only from the last period. This makes inevitable the reconstruction of Stoicism, which is now regarded as a strict system (finalized by Chrysippus). Stoicism (like cynicism, epicureanism and skepticism) is a practically oriented philosophy, the purpose of which is to substantiate "wisdom" as an ethical ideal, but non-ordinary logical and ontological problems play a fundamentally important role in it. In the field of logic and physics, Aristotle and Megara School ; ethics was formed under the Cynic influence, which in Chrysigsh and in the Middle Stoa began to be accompanied by the Platonic and Peripatetic.
Stoicism is divided into logic, physics and ethics. The structural interconnection of the three parts serves as an expression of the universal "logicality" of being, or the unity of the laws of the world mind - logos (primarily the law of causation) in the areas of cognition, world order and moral goal-setting.
Four interrelated classes of predicates or categories act as a universal means of analyzing any objectivity: “substratum” (ὑποκείμενον), “quality” (ποιόν), “state” (πὼς ἔχον), “state in relation” (προς τί πώς έχον), content-equivalent 10 Aristotelian categories.
LOGIC is a fundamental part of Stoicism; its task is to substantiate the necessary and universal laws of reason as the laws of knowledge, being and ethical duty, and philosophizing as a strict "scientific" procedure. The logical part is divided into rhetoric and dialectics; the latter includes the doctrine of the criterion (epistemology) and the doctrine of the signifier and the signified (grammar, semantics and formal logic created by Chrysippus). The epistemology of Stoicism - the programmatic antipode of Platonic - proceeds from the fact that knowledge begins with sensory perception. The cognitive act is built according to the scheme "impression" - "consent" - "comprehension": the content of the "impression" ("imprint in the soul") is verified in the intellectual act of "consent" (συγκατάθεσις), leading to "comprehension" (συγκατάληψις). The criterion of its undeceptiveness is the “comprehending representation” (φαντασία καταληπτική), which arises only from the really present objectivity and reveals its content with unconditional adequacy and clarity. In "representations" and "comprehensions" there is only a primary synthesis of sensory data - a statement of the perception of some objectivity; but they do not provide knowledge about it and, unlike their correlative logical statements (ἀξιώματα), cannot have the predicate "true" or "false". From homogeneous "comprehensions" in memory, preliminary general representations (προλήψεις, ἔννοιαι) are formed, forming the sphere of primary experience. In order to enter the system of knowledge, experience must acquire a clear analytical-synthetic structure: this is the task of dialectics, which mainly studies the relations of incorporeal meanings. Its basis is semantics (which resonates in the logical-semantic concepts of the 20th century), which analyzes the relation of the word-sign (“expressed word”, λόγος προφορικός), the signified meaning (“inner word” = “lekton”, λόγος ἐνδιάθετος, λεκτόν) and real denotation. The relationship of sign and meaning at the level of "lekton" is the primary model of cause-and-effect relationships. The ratio of the corporeal and the incorporeal within the framework of the corporeal universe is a global (and unsolvable) meta-problem of Stoicism: only bodies really exist; the incorporeal (emptiness, place, time and "meanings") is present in a different way.
Prominent representatives of Stoicism in ancient Rome were Seneca, Epictetus and the emperor Marcus Aurelius.
In a figurative sense, stoicism is firmness and courage in life's trials.
The image of the stoic sage has firmly entered the everyday life of European moral consciousness. Already at the mere mention of the word “stoic”, an image of a person emerges in memory, courageously enduring all the vicissitudes of fate, calmly and unwaveringly fulfilling his duty, free from passions and unrest. This image is so popular that it even gave rise to a common cliché - to “stoically” endure difficulties and trials.
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You were washed ashore thousands of miles from home with no money or supplies. Such a turmoil will lead many to despair and they will curse fate. But for Zeno of Citia, such an event was the beginning of the work of a lifetime and his legacy. As a wealthy merchant, he lost everything in a shipwreck in Athens around 300 AD. Staggering around, he looked into a bookstore and got carried away reading the works of Socrates. Teaming up with other prominent philosophers of the city, he continued his study and scientific research. When Zeno himself began teaching students, he initiated the philosophy known as Stoicism, whose teachings of virtue, tolerance, and self-control continue to inspire generations of thinkers and leaders. The word "stoicism" comes from the Stoa Poikile, a painted public colonnade where Zeno and his followers gathered to socialize. Today, we informally use the word "stoic" to refer to a person who stays calm under external pressure and avoids emotional extremes. While this definition captures important aspects of Stoicism, the original philosophy involved more than just a sense of the world. The Stoics believed that everything around us happens due to the interweaving of cause and effect, reflected in the rational structure of the universe, which they called the Logos. And although we can not always control what is happening around us, we can control our perception of what is happening. Instead of dreams of an ideal society, the Stoics tried to perceive the world as it is and at the same time engaged in self-development, emphasizing 4 important virtues: practical wisdom - the ability to logically and reasonably manage complicated situations while remaining calm; restraint - the training of self-control and moderation in all spheres of life; justice - treating others without prejudice, even if they are wrong; and courage - not only in extreme conditions, but also solving everyday tasks holistically and with a bright head. As Seneca, one of the most famous ancient Roman Stoics, wrote, "Sometimes even life is a manifestation of courage." And although Stoicism focuses on the development of the individual, it is not a philosophy of egocentrism. At a time when slaves were treated as property under Roman law, Seneca called for humane treatment and emphasized that, ultimately, we are all human. Similarly, Stoicism did not support passivity. The basic idea was that only those who developed virtue and self-control could change others for the better. Coincidentally, one of the most famous writers of Stoicism was one of the greatest Roman emperors. During his 19-year reign, Stoicism gave Marcus Aurelius the determination to rule the Empire through two major wars while coping with the loss of many of his own children. Centuries later, Mark's diaries will guide and calm Nelson Mandela during his 27-year imprisonment as he battled racial inequality in South Africa. After his release and final victory, Mandela emphasized the importance of peace and humility. He believed that while past wrongs could not be mended, his people could overcome them in the present and build a better, more just future. Stoicism was an active school of philosophy in Greece and Rome for several centuries. And although it ceased to exist as a formal organization, its influence is noticeable to this day. Christian theologians such as Thomas Aquinas have revered and accepted his attitude towards the virtues. And the concept of "Ataraxia", characteristic of Stoicism, has much in common with the Buddhist concept of Nirvana. One of the most influential Stoics was the philosopher Epictetus, the author of the words: "suffering is not a consequence of the events taking place in our lives, but of how we relate to them." This resonates strongly with contemporary psychology and the self-help movement. For example, self-deprecating behavior-focused, rational-emotional-behavioral therapy with which people deal with their own life upheavals. There is also Viktor Frankl's logotherapy. Given Frankl's experience as a prisoner in a concentration camp, logotherapy is based on the Stoic principle that we can make our lives meaningful through the effort of the will. Even in the harshest of circumstances.
periodization
Prior to the discovery of this school, the Stoics in Athens were called the community of poets who gathered in Stoa Poikile a hundred years before the appearance there of Zeno and his disciples and like-minded people.
Average standing(Stoic Platonism): -I century BC. Representatives: Panetius Rhodes (c. 180-110 BC) and Posidonius (c. 135-51 BC). They developed Stoicism in Rome, while Archedem of Tarsus spread this doctrine to Parthian Babylon. Other representatives: Mnesarchus, Dardanus, Hekaton Rhodes, Diodotus, Geminus, Antipater from Tyre, Athenodorus and others.
late standing(Roman Stoicism): -II century AD. e. Seneca (4 BC - 65 AD), Epictetus (50-138 AD) and Marcus Aurelius (121-180 AD). Other representatives: Mussonius Ruf, Sextus Cheronean, Hierocles, Kornut, Euphrates, Cleomedes, Junius Rustic, etc.
Sometimes a 4th period is singled out in the development of Stoicism, linking it with the teachings of some Pythagoreans and Platonists - II century AD. e., Philo of Alexandria.
Ultimately, there was a convergence of Stoicism with Neoplatonism, and then its dissolution in the latter.
Also, the influence of Stoicism on the Gnostic teachings of an ascetic orientation (Valentinian and Marcionite schools) is undoubted.
Stoic teachings
Logics
Ethics
The Stoics distinguish four types of affects: pleasure, disgust, lust and fear. They must be avoided by using right judgment (orthos logos).
Preference should be given to things that are in harmony with nature. The Stoics draw the same distinction between actions. There are bad and good deeds, average deeds are called "proper" if a natural predisposition is realized in them.
O. B. Skorodumova notes that the Stoics were characterized by the idea of the inner freedom of man. So, she writes, convinced that the world is determined ("the law of fate does its right ... no one's prayer touches it, neither suffering will break it, nor mercy"), they proclaim the inner freedom of a person as the highest value: "He whoever thinks that slavery extends to the individual is mistaken: his best part is free from slavery.
M. L. Khorkov noted the interest of the Stoics in the problem of the poetic. So, “Zeno writes the book “On the Reading of Poetry”, Cleanthes - “On the Poet”, Chrysippus - “On Poems” and “On How to Read Poetry”. Strabo, himself an adherent of Stoic philosophy, notes that, according to the Stoics, there is a close connection between the poetic and all parts of philosophy without exception. In this regard, Khorkov considers it symbolic that before the appearance of philosophers in the Stoa, who received their name from this portico, poets lived there, who were called "Stoics". V. G. Borukhovich noted that since Greek prose appeared much later than poetry, then on this basis the grammarians of the Stoic school considered prose to be degenerate poetry.
During the Roman Empire, the teachings of the Stoics turned into a kind of religion for the people, and throughout the empire, and enjoyed the greatest influence in Syria and Palestine. Throughout the history of Stoicism, Socrates was the chief authority of the Stoics; his behavior during his trial, his refusal to flee, his calmness in the face of death, his assertion that injustice does more harm to the one who commits it than to the victim - all this fully corresponded to the teachings of the Stoics. The same impression was produced by his indifference to heat and cold, simplicity in regard to food and clothing, and complete disregard for all sorts of comforts. But the Stoics never accepted Plato's doctrine of ideas, and most of them rejected his arguments about immortality. Only the later pagan Stoics, when opposed to Christian materialism, agreed with Plato that the soul is immaterial; early Stoics shared the view
At the end of the 4th century BC e. in Greece, Stoicism is formed, which in the Hellenistic, as well as in the later Roman period, becomes one of the most common philosophical movements. Its founder was Zeno of China (336-264 BC).
Zeno was the first to proclaim in the treatise "On Human Nature" that the main goal is "to live in accordance with nature, and this is the same as to live in accordance with virtue." In this way, he gave Stoic philosophy the main orientation towards ethics and its development. He himself realized the put forward ideal in his life. From Zeno also comes an effort to combine the three parts of philosophy (logic, physics and ethics) into one whole system. The Stoics often compared philosophy to the human body. They considered logic the skeleton, ethics the muscles, and physics the soul.
Stoicism is a philosophy of duty, a philosophy of fate. Its prominent representatives are Seneca, Nero's teacher, Emperor Marcus Aurelius. The positions of this philosophy are opposite to Epicurus: trust fate, fate leads the humble, and drags the rebellious.
Since the need to substantiate polis civic virtues has disappeared and interests have concentrated on the salvation of the individual, ethical virtues have become cosmopolitan. The Stoics developed the ontological ideas of the cosmic logos, but transformed this Heraclitean teaching as a teaching about universal law, providence, and God.
Historians have characterized philosophy as "an exercise in wisdom". The instrument of philosophy, its main part, they considered logic. It teaches to handle concepts, form judgments and conclusions. Without it, one cannot understand either physics or ethics, which is a central part of Stoic philosophy. Physics, that is, the philosophy of nature, they, however, did not overestimate. This follows from their main ethical requirement to "live in harmony with nature", that is, with the nature and order of the world - the logos. However, in principle, they did not bring anything new to this area.
In ontology (which they placed in the "philosophy of nature"), the Stoics recognize two basic principles: the material principle (material), which is considered the basis, and the spiritual principle - logos (god), which penetrates all matter and forms specific single things. This is definitely a dualism that is also found in the philosophy of Aristotle. However, if Aristotle saw the “first essence” in the individual, which is the unity of matter and form, and exalted the form as the active principle of matter, then the Stoics, on the contrary, considered the material principle to be the essence (although, like him, they recognized matter as passive, and logos (god) - active principle).
The concept of God in Stoic philosophy can be characterized as pantheistic. The Logos, according to their views, permeates all nature, manifests itself everywhere in the world. He is the law of necessity, providence. The concept of God gives their entire conception of being a deterministic, even fatalistic, character, which also permeates their ethics.
In the field of the theory of knowledge, the Stoics represent mainly the ancient form of sensationalism. The basis of knowledge, according to their views, is sensory perception, which is caused by specific, single things. The general exists only through the singular. Here, the influence of Aristotle's teaching on the relationship between the general and the individual is noticeable, which is also projected onto their understanding of categories. The Stoics, however, greatly simplify the Aristotelian system of categories. They limited it to only four main categories: substance (essence, quantity, a certain quality and relation, according to a certain quality. With the help of these categories, reality is comprehended.
The Stoics pay much attention to the problem of truth. The central concept and a certain criterion of the truth of knowledge is, in their opinion, the doctrine of the so-called grasping representation, which arises under the influence of a perceived object with the active participation of the subject of perception. The cataleptic representation directly and clearly "captures" the perceived object. Only this clear and obvious perception necessarily causes the consent of the mind and necessarily becomes understanding (catalepsis). As such, understanding is the basis of conceptual thinking.
The center and bearer of knowledge, according to Stoic philosophy, is the soul. It is understood as something bodily, material. Sometimes it is referred to as pneuma (combination of air and fire). Its central part, in which the ability to think and in general everything that can be defined in modern terms as mental activity, is localized, the Stoics call reason (hegemonic). Reason connects a person with the whole world. The individual mind is part of the world mind.
Although the Stoics consider the basis of all knowledge of feeling, great attention they also pay attention to the problems of thinking. Stoic logic is closely related to the basic principle of Stoic philosophy - logos. “... Since they (the Stoics) elevated abstract thinking to a principle, they developed formal logic. Logic is therefore logic with them in the sense that it expresses the activity of the understanding as conscious understanding. They paid much attention to inference, in particular to problems of implication. The Stoics developed the ancient form of propositional logic.
Stoic ethics pushes virtue to the top of human efforts. Virtue, according to their ideas, is the only good. Virtue means to live in harmony with reason. The Stoics recognize four basic virtues: rationality bordering on willpower, moderation, justice, and valor. Four opposites are added to the four basic virtues: rationality is opposed by unreasonableness, moderation by licentiousness, justice by injustice, and valor by cowardice and cowardice. There is a clear, categorical difference between good and evil, between virtue and sin, there are no transitional states between them.
Everything else is classified by the Stoics as indifferent things. A person cannot influence things, but he can “rise” above them. In this position, the moment of “resignation to fate” is manifested, which is developed, in particular, in the so-called middle and new stoicism. Man must obey the cosmic order, he must not desire what is not in his power. The ideal of Stoic aspirations is peace (ataraxia) or at least impassive patience (anathea). The stoic sage (the ideal of man) is the embodied mind. He is distinguished by tolerance and restraint, and his happiness "consists in the fact that he does not want any happiness." This stoic ideal reflects the skepticism of the lower and middle strata of the then society, caused by its progressive decomposition, the fact that a person cannot change the objective course of events, that he can only “cope with them internally”.
Stoic morality was the exact opposite of Epicurean morality.
Society, according to the Stoics, arises naturally, and not by convention, as among the Epicureans. All people, regardless of gender, social status or ethnic origin, are equal in the most natural way. Stoic philosophy best reflects the developing crisis of the spiritual life of Greek society, which was the result of economic and political decay. It is Stoic ethics that most adequately reflects "its time". This is the ethics of "conscious refusal", conscious resignation to fate. It diverts attention from the outside world, from society to the inner world of a person. Only within himself can a person find the main and only support.
