By geography on the topic " GEORRAPHY OF THE WORLD POPULATION»

Option 1

1. Indicate the approximate population of the globe: billion people; billion. human;

2) 5.1-6.0 billion people; 4) 7 billion people.

2. Specify the absolute annual increase in the population of the Earth:

1) 20-30 million people; million human;

2) 50-70 million people; mln. human.

3. Indicate in the proposed list of countries whose population exceeds 100 million people:

1) China; 2) Mexico; 3) India; 4) Bangladesh.

4. Specify a group that includes only states with a population of more than 100 million people:

1) Russia. Ethiopia, Nigeria, India;

2) Vietnam, Italy, France, Germany;

3) Brazil, Japan, Pakistan, Nigeria;

4) Bangladesh, Pakistan, Ukraine, Australia.

5. Indicate in the proposed list of countries in Europe the largest country in terms of population:

1) Spain; 2) Hungary; 3) Sweden; 4) Denmark.

6. Indicate in the proposed list of countries of the Americas the largest country in terms of population:

1) Colombia; 2) Argentina; 3) Canada; 4) Mexico.

7. Name the three largest countries in Africa by population:

1) Algeria; 6) Chad;

2) Ethiopia; 7) Morocco;

3) Zaire; 8) Botswana;

4) South Africa; 9) Egypt;

5) Nigeria; 10) Tanzania.

8. Indicate the correct statements:

1) There is more population in the eastern hemisphere than in the western;

2) In the northern hemisphere, the population is less than in the southern;

3) Most of the inhabitants of the Earth are settled at an altitude of up to 2000 m above sea level;

4) The average population density on Earth is about 20 people per 1 km2.

9. Indicate the correct statements:

1) The population density in Asia is almost 4 times the average population density of the Earth;

2) The population density in Africa is about 2 times lower than the world average;

3) The population density in Europe is about 70 people. per 1 km2;

4) The population density in Australia and Oceania is greater than in South America;

10. Indicate the correct statements:

1) Of all the countries in the world (not counting the dwarf ones), Japan has the highest population density;

2) About half of the inhabitants of the land have a population density of less than a quarter of the land area;

3) Uninhabited areas occupy about a quarter of the land area;

4) There are areas on the globe where the population density exceeds 1000 people per 1 km2.

11. Indicate on which of the listed continents 1/5 of the population lives at an altitude of more than 1000 m above sea level: 1) Africa; 2) North America; 3) Australia; 4) Eurasia.

12. Indicate in the proposed list of European countries five states with approximately the same population:

1) Germany; 6) Belgium;

2) France; 7) Greece;

3) the Netherlands; 8) Norway;

4) Greece; 9) Sweden;

5) Bulgaria; 10) Poland.

13. Indicate among the regions of the world three with the largest population:

1) Europe; 4) North America;

2) Asia; 5) Latin America;

14. In the following list of countries in Europe, indicate five countries with approximately the same population size:

1) France; 6) Denmark;

2) Italy; 7) Belgium;

3) Norway; 8) Czech Republic;

4) Hungary; 9) Slovakia;

5) Bulgaria; 10) Portugal;

15. Indicate the group in which all countries have low population density: 1) Oman, Paraguay, Belgium; 2) Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia; 3) USA, Japan, Germany; 4) Russia, Libya, Mongolia

Test for thematic control of the level of basic knowledge of 10th grade students in geography on the topic " Reproduction and age and sex composition of the population”

Option 2

1) The ratio of men and women in the world is determined by a significant preponderance of the number of women over the number of men in India and China;

2) In the whole world, the number of women is much larger than the number of men;

3) In developed countries, as a rule, women predominate in numbers;

4) More boys are born than girls, but by the age of 15, the sex ratio levels off, and at older ages, women usually predominate.

2. Specify errors in the list of countries in which men predominate:

1) Paraguay; 6) Bulgaria;

2) Mexico; 7) Ireland;

3) Peru; 8) Philippines;

4) China; 9) Japan;

5) Egypt; 10) Mongolia.

3. Indicate in the list provided the five countries with the highest birth rate:

1) Pakistan; 6) Cuba;

2) Afghanistan; 7) Brazil;

3) India; 8) Chile;

4) China; 9) Mali;

5) Nigeria; 10) Democratic Republic of the Congo.

4. Indicate in the list provided the five countries with the highest natural increase:

1) Mongolia; 6) Chad;

2) Albania; 7) Madagascar;

3) South Africa; 8) Nicaragua;

4) Egypt; 9) Algeria;

5) Nigeria; 10) Australia.

5. Select the country with the highest natural population growth in Europe:

1) Greece; 3) Bulgaria;

2) Albania; 4) Portugal.

6. Indicate the correct statements:

1) In developing countries, children make up 40-45% of the population;

2) In developing countries, the share of the working-age population is 70-80%;

3) In developing countries, the proportion of children is 4-5 times higher than the proportion of older people;

4) In developed countries, the proportion of older people is above average.

7. Indicate the country where the proportion of older people is higher than the proportion of children:

1) Kenya; 3) Kuwait;

2) Germany; 4) India.

8. Among the regions of the world, indicate the two with the highest proportion of children

3) Africa; 6) Australia and Oceania.

9. Among the regions of the world, indicate the two with the highest proportion of older people:

1) Overseas Europe; 4) North America;

2) Overseas Asia; 5) Latin America;

3) Africa; 6) Australia and Oceania.

10. Indicate a country where the proportion of children is less than a quarter of the population and the proportion of older people is significantly higher than the global average:

1) Brazil; 4) India;

2) Mexico; 5) Kuwait;

3) Bulgaria; 6) Kenya.

11. Indicate the Asian state with the highest mortality rate:

1) Japan; 4) Afghanistan;

2) India; 5) Kuwait;

3) Iran; 6) Republic of Korea.

12. Indicate the region where the proportion of children is 9 times higher than the proportion of older people:

3) Africa; 6) Australia and Oceania.

13. Indicate the region in which the proportion of people of working age is highest (from 15 to 59 years):

1) Overseas Asia; 4) Latin America;

2) Overseas Europe; 5) North America;

3) CIS; 6) Australia and Oceania.

14. In the world, for every 1000 women, there are approximately (specify the correct option):

1) 990 men; men;

2) 1001 men; men.

15. Currently around the world as a whole (specify the correct option):

1) the birth rate is about 35%o, the death rate is about 20%o;

2) the birth rate is about 25%o, the death rate is about 10%o;

3) the birth rate is about 20%o, the death rate is about 15%o;

4) the birth rate is about 15%o, the death rate is about 10%o.

Test for thematic control of the level of basic knowledge of 10th grade students on the topic " National composition of the population »

Option 3

1. Indicate the correct statements:

1) About half of the states of the world are multinational;

2) the USA is the most multinational country in the world;

3) India is a multinational state;

4) The most common language in the world is English.

2. Specify multinational countries from the proposed list

1) Sweden; 6) Spain;

2) Russia; 7) Denmark;

3) USA; 8) Germany;

4) UK; 9) Hungary;

5) Albania; 10) Portugal.

3. Indicate in the proposed list three countries with an extremely complex national composition:

1) Poland; 6) Norway;

2) India; 7) Indonesia;

3) China; 8) Australia;

4) Nigeria; 9) Libya;

5) France; 10) Argentina.

4. Indicate the two largest families of the listed languages:

1) Niger-Kordofanian; 6) Indo-European;

2) Sino-Tibetan; 7) Dravidian;

3) Afroasian; 8) North Caucasian;

4) Altai; 9) Austronesian;

5) Ural-Yukaghir; 10) Australian.

5. Indicate the 5 most numerous peoples from the list provided

1) Chinese;

2) Koreans;

3) Japanese;

4) the British;

5) Spaniards;

6) Russians;

7) French;

8) Hindustanis;

9) Bengalis;

6. Select the two most common languages ​​from the list provided

1) German;

2) English;

4) French.

7. Set match:

Official language Country

1) English; A) Venezuela

2) Portuguese; B) Mali

3) Spanish; B) Laos

4) French D) Mozambique

D) the Netherlands

8. Which people make up the national minority in Romania

1) Slovaks;

2) Ukrainians;

3) Bulgarians;

5) Hungarians.

9. Specify state languages Switzerland

1) German;

2) English;

3) Spanish;

4) Italian;

5) French;

6) Catalan;

7) Tyrolean;

8) Romansh.

10. Indicate three people belonging to the same language family

1) Hindustanis;

2) Chinese;

5) Egyptians;

8) Japanese;

10) Tamils.

11. Indicate between which races mestizos are an intermediate group

1) between Caucasoid and Negroid;

2) between Caucasoid and Mongoloid;

3) between Caucasoid and Australoid;

4) between Negroid and Mongoloid.

12. Indicate the region in which the most intensively occurred (and is currently happening) mixing of races

1) Overseas Asia;

2) Overseas Europe;

3) America;

4) Africa;

5) Australia and Oceania;

13. Point out errors in the list of countries for the majority of the population of which English is the native language

2) UK;

3) Brazil;

4) New Zealand;

6) Australia;

14. Name the two main peoples of Sri Lanka

1) Hindustanis;

2) Bengalis;

3) Tamils;

4) Marathi;

5) Ceylons;

6) Sinhalese;

7) Malays;

8) Indians.

15. Select the country according to the available in it to national minorities: Kurds, Azerbaijanis, Arabs, Balochs

6) Pakistan.

The key to the test "Geography of the population of the world"

	Option 1	Option 2	Option 3
			1-D; 2 - G; 3 - A; 4 - B

Evaluation criteria

For each correct answer, 1 point is given.

"5 points

"4" -points

"3" - 9 - 11 points

The absolute annual increase in the production of mineral fertilizers for 1958-1970[ ...]

The absolute increase is defined as the difference between the levels of the series and is expressed in units of measurements of the indicators of the series. The growth rate characterizes the ratio of one level of the series to another and is expressed in coefficients or percentages.[ ...]

The growth of rainbow trout fry is strongly influenced by the oxygen content in the water. At a low oxygen concentration, the growth slows down by half, the absolute and relative indicators of feed consumption, its payment decrease. This is explained, in particular, by the deterioration of protein digestibility.[ ...]

The growth rate is determined by the ratio of absolute growth to the base level of the indicator. The absolute value of one percent growth is the ratio of absolute growth to the growth rate, expressed as a percentage.[ ...]

In 1970, the growth of the world's population was 1.8%, but in the 80s. annual growth fell to 1.7% (in absolute terms, it decreased by hundreds of millions of people). This corresponds to the theory of demographic transition developed in 1945 by F. Notestoin, according to which there are three stages of population growth, determined by economic and social development.[ ...]

The decrease in the rate of increase in the content of freons is due to the fact that in the second half of the 1980s. many industrialized countries have introduced restrictions on the production and consumption of these products. We can expect a further decline in the trend in the coming years in connection with the international agreements reached on the gradual phase-out of the use of fluorochlorocarbons. However, the absolute concentrations of freons in the atmosphere will probably increase for many years to come even after the complete cessation of their production. From Table. 3.7 shows that more than half of the CEC1:) produced by 1991 is in the troposphere, about 19% has moved to the stratosphere, and about 22% is still in active (refrigeration units, etc.) or passive (as part of products from porous polymers such as polystyrene urethane) in use and will gradually be released in environment.[ ...]

To analyze the dynamics of growth, the average values ​​of absolute growth over decades were considered. Noticeable discrepancies in the growth rate at different distances from the road are observed in the 1960s–1970s, when the trees adapted to transplant conditions and actively formed their crowns (Fig. 1). In the 1980s-1990s. the increase at different distances from the road had close average values ​​(the differences are small and unreliable at a significance level of 0.05).[ ...]

In the zone of post-fire growth, there are changes in the width and structure of the annual layers. Our data obtained in the study of the Dvina and Upper Vychegoda burnt areas show that for trees injured by ground fires in green puff conditions, an increase in the width of the annual layer in the lower parts of the trunks is characteristic, which occurs due to the absolute increase in both its early and late parts, with This relative increase in some cases occurs in the width of the late wood (especially on the side damaged by fire).[ ...]

However, if the increase in yield is assessed not by the absolute value of the increase obtained, but attributed to a unit nutrients, then a dose of fertilizers of 30 kg of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium turns out to be more profitable, at which 8.4 centners of grain fall on each centner of nutrients. Increasing the dose of nitrogen up to 90 kg per 1 ha turned out to be ineffective.[ ...]

12

Knowing the weight, length of the fish before the experiment and at the end of the experiment, calculate the weight gain, length for a given period of time. I express growth! in absolute terms, as a percentage of the original value or in a logarithmic dependence.[ ...]

Most of the statistical characteristics are based on an absolute or relative comparison of the levels of dynamic series of indicators of dynamics: the absolute growth of the indicator, growth and growth rates. The compared level is called the current level, and the level with which the comparison is made is called the base level. The base level is often taken either as the previous level or as the initial level in a given dynamic range.[ ...]

Precipitation from the solution of carbonates and their use for growth in terms of 1 g of absolutely dry matter is from 1.1 to 6.4 mg/day.[ ...]

According to the dynamics series, indicators are calculated that characterize the absolute increase, the growth rate and growth, the absolute values ​​of one percent increase.[ ...]

The use of liquid nitrogen fertilizers in the United States is systematically increasing both in absolute and relative terms, and in terms of growth in consumption, they are ahead of all nitrogen fertilizers in general.[ ...]

If the difference is negative, then there has been a decrease in discharge and on line 11 in column 6 an absolute decrease is given, indicating in subsequent lines (12, 13 and 14) due to what reasons this was achieved. If the difference is positive, then the reset has increased. In this case, on line 11 in column 6, the absolute increase in pollution with a minus sign (-) is given, lines 12, 13 and 14 are not filled in, and the reasons are given in the explanation to the report.[ ...]

During a spark breakdown of water, part of the energy released in the spark channel is converted into heat. In absolute terms, the increase in temperature can be significant. According to our observations, such an increase in temperature at disinfection costs of 11 - 22 J/ml reaches 2.6 + 0.24° C, and at 44 J/ml - 5.8 ± 0.17° C.[ ...]

Phytomass is usually expressed in kilograms, tons or kilocalories of dry matter per hectare. The growth of phytomass is the main indicator of biological productivity. The maximum values ​​of phytomass are observed in tropical rainforests (700-1000 t/ha of absolutely dry matter), the minimum - in the tundra (25-30 t/ha). At the same time, the increase in phytomass or primary production (productivity) in tropical forests is 25-30 t/ha, and in the tundra 2-2.5 t/ha. Phytomass consists of complex organic compounds, which are the basis for the existence of living organisms, using them as a nutrient material.[ ...]

The huge range of perception of sounds is explained by the ability of human hearing to respond not to an absolute, but to a relative increase in sound volume. This means that the physiological sensation of the same increase in volume occurs when the sound intensity changes not by the same number of units, but in the same number once. So, a change in sound pressure by a factor of 10 (from 1 to 10 bar, from 10 to 100 bar, etc.) is always perceived as the same increase in volume. The same thing happens with the perception of the frequency of vibrations. Our hearing has the ability to equally respond not to absolute increases in frequency, but to its relative changes. So, doubling any frequency always leads to a sensation of increasing the tone by a certain amount, called an octave.[ ...]

This method of determining the growth rate is very simple and is most often used in practice (by the magnitude of the absolute growth of an animal, its growth rate is judged). It is used to control growing young animals, the growth of fattened animals, etc.[ ...]

Of the developed countries, only the United States, which occupies the third place in the world in terms of the number of inhabitants, made it to the list of leaders in terms of their absolute growth. India and China stand out, accounting for a third of the absolute growth. It can be seen from the list of countries that 10 large Asian countries provided more than half, or rather 52.2% of the world population increase and more than 4/5 or 83.7% of the growth in Overseas Asia. In Africa, the situation is much more dispersed and therefore the contribution of countries with an increase of more than 1 million people per year to the world and African “demographic piggy bank” looks modest and amounts to 9.6% and 40.1%, respectively. Meanwhile, the same figures, taken in total for the United States and Mexico, are 4.3% and 67.3%, and for Brazil - 2.5% and 41.6%.[ ...]

Contribution different countries and continents in the overall picture of population growth is far from the same (Figure 5.6, Table 5.1). In terms of absolute numbers, the biggest increase was given by large Asian countries - China, India, Indonesia; the highest growth rates were observed in Africa and Latin America. In some African countries, the relative growth reached 4% per year. In most more developed countries and regions ( Western Europe, North America) the situation of a population explosion was observed much earlier - back in the 19th century. Many of them are currently characterized by the development of a demographic transition to population stabilization.[ ...]

Pruning a tree formed by a fan. The skeleton of a plum, formed by a fan, starting from a one-year-old seedling, is created in exactly the same way as that of a peach formed by a fan (see pp. 138-145). After that, pruning is done differently, since the plum bears fruit on short spurs of two, three, and even four years of age, as well as on the growth of the previous year. The purpose of pruning is to stimulate the formation of spurs and, if necessary, to replace old branches.[ ...]

The rate of increase in the production of cellulose acetates is currently not very high. However, a small relative increase (about 4% in 1971) in absolute terms amounts to a rather significant amount, equal to 17 thousand tons. The total amount of cellulose ethers produced in the USA in 1968 is estimated at 458 thousand tons.[ ...]

Apple tree seedlings were planted in 1953 in vegetation vessels. Fertilizers were applied at the rate of: N - 85 mg, P2Os - 70 mg and K2O-95 mg per 1 kg of absolutely dry soil. The growth of these apple trees in 1953 was about 35 cm per tree.[ ...]

Observations of the development of all three ravines of the thermal erosion system No. 5 of the UKPG-1V section show that from the age of 5–6 years, the main increase in the length of the ravine system occurs mainly due to the formation of new screwdrivers. These chisels appear continuously due to the ongoing disturbance of the tundra surface, the increase in the snow cover of the built-up area, and the redistribution of the snow cover. Usually, some screwdrivers cease to function in certain seasons, quickly reaching the stage of attenuation, while others actively develop under favorable conditions. The intensity of development depends on the flow rate of the watercourse. In this regard, it should be noted that when developing anti-erosion measures, absolutely all such forms of mesorelief should be taken into account.[ ...]

Young generative plants (§1). Seed production in a young generative state is not abundant and irregular. The trees are characterized by maximum absolute growth in height (50 cm), individual shoots reach 175 cm. A regular peaked conical crown is formed, the main axis is clearly traced from its base to the top. A crust appears at the base of the trunk. In individuals grown in dry areas, the state lasts about 50 years. For such a long and active growth period during appearance pines are undergoing significant transformation. From the age of 12, when individual individuals in pine populations enter the seed-bearing season, and up to the age of 60, when most plants enter the middle-aged state, the following morphological changes occur: 1) the average height of trees increases from 5.5 to 24 m ; 2) the average trunk diameter at chest level increases from 9 to 36 cm; 3) the order of branching in the shoot system changes from 5 to 8; 4) crown diameter increases from 2 to 7 m; 5) the trunk is cleared of lower branches up to 13 m; 6) the length of the crown increases to 11 m; 7) a crust appears at the base of the trunk for 7 m; 8) the average length of the needles reaches a maximum size - 84 mm. The young generative state is distinguished by the most active growth processes; at this time, a typical life form of a pine is formed - a single-stem tree.[ ...]

Determination of growth rate. The growth rate of animals in different periods of their life is not the same. Growth is determined by live weight and measurements. Distinguish between absolute and relative increase in live weight. Under the absolute increase is understood as an increase in live weight and measurements of young animals for a certain period of time (day, decade, month, year), expressed in kilograms. The absolute growth of animals is the difference between the final and initial body weight, divided by the number of days.[ ...]

On fig. Table 9.9 shows graphs of changes in the volume of destruction for the studied objects of the Medvezhye deposit (see Table 8.5). The dynamics of U(T) clearly demonstrates an increase in the absolute values ​​of the volume of ravine destruction with a significant decrease in the annual growth rate (see Fig. 8.16). To reduce the forecasting error due to possible fluctuations in the amount of precipitation, the duration of erosion, etc., for the year under study, the volume of disturbances of the previous, studied, and subsequent years should be averaged. It should be noted that according to field observations, the transition of gully formation from the active stage to the fading one is associated with the cessation of the increase in the length of the ravine system (see Table 8.6). The natural limitation of the maximum length of the ravine is mainly the length of the slope and the basis of erosion, the catchment area, the energy characteristics of the watercourse associated with the quality of the soil cover when moving along the slope of the top of the ravine.[ ...]

In particular, significant population growth occurred and continues to occur in the second half of the 20th century, during which the population more than doubled. The largest relative population growth increased, reaching in the late 60s. maximum equal to 2.06% per year. Since then, the relative growth has been declining, but the absolute growth has continued to increase, from 65 million per year in 1965 to 80 million in 1985, and about 90 million people. in 1995. It is expected that soon the absolute increase in the world population for the year will decline. According to forecasts, the stabilization of the world population will occur in the middle of the next century at the level of 10 ± 2 billion people.[ ...]

In the spring of 1954, a week before bud break, fertilizers containing P32 were applied under the apple trees. At the same time, fertilizers were applied under some apple trees at the rate of 35 mg, and under others at the rate of 105 mg of each active ingredient per 1 kg of absolutely dry soil. The amount of labeled phosphorus was the same in both cases. Seven days after the start of bud break, leaves, one-year growth of shoots, trunk, first-order roots, second-order roots, third-order roots were examined.[ ...]

In any complex system, it is realistic existing world of paramount importance is the maintenance of processes going against the temperature gradient. As Schrödinger showed, in order to maintain internal order in a system at a temperature above absolute zero, when there is a thermal movement of atoms and molecules, constant work is needed to pump out disorder. In an ecosystem, the ratio of the total respiration of a community to its total biomass (R/B) can be considered as the ratio of the energy spent on maintaining vital activity to the energy contained in the structure, or as a measure of thermodynamic order. If we express R and B in calories (energy units) and divide them by absolute temperature, then the RIB ratio becomes the ratio of the increase in entropy (and the corresponding work) associated with maintaining the structure to the entropy of the ordered part. The larger the biomass, the greater the maintenance costs; but if the size of the units into which the biomass is divided (individual organisms, for example) is large enough (say, these are trees), then the costs of maintaining processes going against the temperature gradient, in terms of the structural unit of biomass, will be lower. One of the theoretical questions now being intensively debated is whether nature seeks to maximize the ratio of "structural" to "maintenance" metabolism (see Margalef, 1968; Morowitz, 1968), or whether this refers to the energy flow itself.[ ...]

The biological and productive effect of the fish hydrolyzate in the compound feed was evaluated by weight growth, survival rate and fatness of juveniles. The sample size when assessing weight growth is at least 25 specimens. from each pool. The growth rate (speed) of juveniles was judged from absolute daily gains. Survival was calculated according to the data of dead juveniles during daily cleaning of pools.[ ...]

In the absence of cytokinins, callus formation in the core of the tobacco stem practically does not occur. It begins only in samples containing cytokinin. It is possible to detect the beginning of the process under a microscope after 2-4 days, but usually the effect of cytokinins is judged by the increase in wet and dry callus weight after 4-5 weeks from the moment of planting. To determine the weight, the callus is transferred from the flask to the bottle and weighed to find out its wet weight. Then it is brought in a thermostat at 105° to constant weight and the dry weight is determined. Within a certain concentration limit, a linear relationship is found between callus weight and cytokinin concentration. At lower concentrations, the effect of cytokinin is not manifested, and at higher concentrations, a decrease in the effect may be observed. The absolute values ​​of stimulating concentrations vary depending on the taken cytokinin.[ ...]

For the second experiment, three-year-old apple trees of the Kalvil snow variety were taken. Prior to the experiment, apple trees were grown for two years in vegetation vessels. In the first year, they received fertilizers at the rate of N - 200 mg (applied in three periods), P2O5 and K2O 150 mg each (applied in one period) per 1 kg of absolutely dry soil. In the second year, the fertilizer rate was reduced by half. The growth of apple trees in two years was approximately 40 cm per tree.[ ...]

As can be seen from Table. 1, the light extinction strongly depends on the degree of purity of the bidistillate containing air. Boiling leads to a decrease in extinction, freezing - to some increase. After magnetic treatment, the extinction of light by water in all cases increases. In absolute units, the greatest extinction is characteristic of magnetized water after freezing - thawing. But the increase in extinction is most noticeable after treatment of boiled (degassed) water. It is possible that this is due to the influence of the process of dissolution of gases in water.[ ...]

In today's developed countries, a marked increase in the share of the urban population was noted about a century ago. During the current fifty years (1975-2025), the proportion of the urban population in these countries has already increased slightly, approaching the upper limit of the transition (logistics) curve. But on the other hand, about 90% of the growth in the urban population occurs at the expense of developing countries. Africans and Asians, only a third of whom now live in cities, will also cross the 50% mark by 2025. The number and share of the rural population is stabilizing or will decrease, depending on the continent. With the absolute predominance of the urban population on all continents, the ecosphere as a whole will become different, with a relatively rare rural population and numerous cities of various sizes, including super-large, so-called megalopolises. Understanding this transitional process in the ecosphere in its relationship with the activities of society is one of the most important problems of geoecology as an interdisciplinary direction.[ ...]

There is a limit to the possible drop in temperature. The efficiency cannot exceed unity; this would contradict the first law of thermodynamics. It follows that the temperature of the refrigerator cannot become negative, so that the natural limit of the decrease in the temperature of the refrigerator is zero. This limit is also called absolute zero temperature, so no object can get colder. In such an “icy desert”, the efficiency of any machine would be equal to one, since an arbitrarily small portion of heat given to the refrigerator would lead to a huge increase in entropy. This is due to the fact that in the formula describing the change in entropy, temperature is in the denominator. [...]

A pig embryo at the age of 15-20 days doubles its weight in 5 days, and 90-100-day-old piglets - only in 10 days of life, that is, 2 times slower. With a decrease in the overall size of the animal, the number of successive doublings of mass in the embryonic (period is reduced. The size of the zygote is almost the same in all mammals. Age changes absolute.weight gain for the same time intervals of intrauterine development proceed ¡differently (Table 9).[ ...]

If N is small compared to k, then the expression in parentheses is close to unity: in this case, Eq. (9.7) becomes an equation of exponential growth. The population growth graph will be close to the exponential for small N. When N is close to k, the expression in brackets is close to zero, i.e. the population stops increasing. Hence it is clear that k in this model is the capacity of the medium. When N is greater than k, the absolute increase in the number becomes negative, and the number decreases to a value equal to the capacity of the environment. The plot of the population size versus time, corresponding to the solution of equation (9.7), is a 5-shaped curve, similar to that shown in fig. 9.15 below. This curve is called the logistic curve, and the population growth corresponding to equation 9.7 is the logistic growth.[ ...]

Freezing was carried out in an alkali solution of the same concentration as for further xanthogenation. After freezing and thawing, carbon disulfide was added to the sample of cellulose, and EC was carried out as usual. On fig. 2.6 shows the solubility curve of wood sulfite pulp after freezing and, for comparison, the solubility curve of the original pulp. As can be seen from fig. 2.6, these two solubility curves are completely different. Frozen cellulose does not show such a sharp increase in solubility as the original one; its solubility increases gradually. However, in the final section, the increase in the solubility of frozen cellulose is much higher than that of the initial one. In addition, the complete dissolution of cellulose fibers after freezing occurs at 9% alkali concentration, and the original fiber - at 10%. At the same concentration of alkali, the solubility of the fibers after freezing is always higher than that of the original fiber. Thus, the overall availability of pre-frozen pulp is increased.[ ...]

The accumulation of PAHs in soils is due to their deposition with atmospheric precipitation on the underlying surface and decomposition organic matter soils. According to the results of calculations of the balance of PAHs in the system atmospheric precipitation - soil - lysimetric water, an increase in PAHs in soils due to atmospheric precipitation in terms of phenanthrene was reliably recorded. The amount of other light PAHs introduced with atmospheric precipitation is equal to their amount washed out with lysimetric waters, i.e. the accumulation of light polyarenes mainly occurs in the process of soil formation. Different bioclimatic conditions of the subzones determine the absolute accumulation of PAHs in the organogenic horizon, which is 5.2 times lower in the soils of the northern taiga than in the middle one. The qualitative composition of PAHs in atmospheric precipitation, lysimetric waters, and soils in the middle and northern taiga is identical (r = 0.92–0.99 at P = 0.95 and n = 12), which indicates the same mechanisms for the formation of polyarenes during pedogenesis in different bioclimatic zones.

The world population growth rate is declining, but the absolute number of the world's inhabitants is still growing rapidly

The previous issue of the World Population Barometer looked at trends in world population growth as they are seen. The US Census Bureau conducts its own research and develops projections of world population changes. In March 2004, it presented a new report, "World Population Profile 2002." ("Global Population Profile: 2002"). Based on data as of the beginning of 2002 and forecast calculations up to 2050 for 227 countries and territories, it analyzes trends in the size and composition of the world's population, the spread of contraceptive methods in developing countries, and the development of the AIDS pandemic in the 21st century.

As of mid-2002, the world's population was about 6.2 billion. Population growth in 2002 was 74 million. This increase was partly due to the still quite high, despite a significant decline over recent decades, the birth rate, at which the number of children born exceeds that which is necessary for the simple reproduction of generations. But a more important growth factor is currently the age and sex structure of the population, in which the proportion of women of reproductive age is relatively large. On the other hand, despite the continued decline in global mortality, the dynamics of the population of many countries is significantly affected by the spread of AIDS, which must be taken into account when making forecast calculations.

The most striking of them is the rapid growth in the population of developing countries against the background of the stabilization of the population of developed countries at a level of just over 1 billion people (Fig. 1). If in 1950 approximately one in three lived in developed countries, then today it is only one in five.

Figure 1. Population change in developed and developing countries, 1950-2010, billion people

Asia has been and remains the most populous region of the world (Fig. 2). In 1950-1960, 53.5% of the world's population lived there, in 2002 - 56.5%. Until recently, Europe remained the second most populous region, but in the last half century its share has been rapidly declining: from 22.4% in 1950 to 12.9% in 2002. Back in 1970, the number of its inhabitants was almost twice the number of inhabitants of Africa - the third most populous region of the world, but already in 2000 they equalized, concentrating 13.2% of the world's population each, and in 2002 the share of Europe was 12.9%, Africa - 13.5%.

The trend of relative population decline, in addition to Europe, is also characteristic of North America (from 6.5% in 1950 and 1960 to 5.1% in 2002). The share of the population of Oceania has remained stable over the past decades - 0.5% of the world's population. The share of Latin America and the Caribbean countries, having increased from 6.5% in 1950 to 8.7% in 2002, has also shown a tendency towards stabilization in recent years.

On the other hand, rapid population growth is typical, in addition to Africa, for the countries of the Middle East, whose share increased from 1.7% in 1950 to 2.9% in 2002.

According to forecast calculations, the absolute population of large regions of the world will continue to grow in the coming years, but in the longer term, closer to 2050, the population of Europe and a number of developed countries belonging to other regions of the world will begin to decrease.

Figure 2. Population change in the main regions of the world, 1950-2010, million people

The absolute annual increase in world population has been steadily declining since 1990, when an absolute maximum of 87.4 million people was reached from mid-1989 to mid-1990, however, the peak intensity of growth in percentage terms was overcome as early as 1963-1964, when the coefficient growth rose to 2.2% (for 1989-1990 it was 1.7% on average per year, in 2000-2010 - 1.1%). Nevertheless, the world population is still growing rapidly - an increase of 74 million people in 2002 is equivalent to the emergence of a fairly large country, slightly larger than Egypt and somewhat smaller than Vietnam (15th in the world ranking), and in five years - the emergence of a large region, equal in population to modern Western Europe.

Trends in population growth by region of the world have some peculiarities (Fig. 3-4). The rate of annual population growth in general in developed countries has been steadily declining for many decades, gradually approaching zero: from 1.2% in 1950-1960, it fell to 0.3% in 2000-2010. The population growth rate of developing countries increased until the 1970s (the highest value - 2.4% per year - was noted in the 1960-1970s), and then began to decline steadily - to 1.3% in 2000-2010. Thus, the differences between developed and developing countries in terms of population growth are gradually smoothing out, but so far remain very significant.

Figure 3. Average annual population growth rate of developed and developing countries of the world, 1950-2010, in %

The most pronounced downward trend in population growth down to zero growth is in Europe, where the average annual growth rate fell from 1.1% in the 1950s-1960s to 0.1% in 2000-2010 (Fig. 4).

Similar trend, but more high levels, typical for Latin America and the Caribbean. If in the 1950s and 1960s this region, along with the Middle East, was distinguished by the highest population growth rates - 2.7% per year - then after a certain period of stable high growth, it confidently approached the level of other regions of the world, which were distinguished by less straightforward declining trend in population growth.

In the countries of the Middle East, there was a noticeable acceleration in growth rates - up to 3.0% - in the 1970s and 1980s, but even there, in subsequent decades, a slowdown in population growth was observed. But even now the Middle East has the highest population growth rate - 2.2% on average per year in 2000-2010. In Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, it is 1.3%, in Oceania - 1.2%, Asia - 1.1%, North America - 0.9%.

A slight deviation from the downward trend in growth rates was observed in North America: in 1980-1990, the average annual growth rate was 1.0% there, and in 1990-2000 - 1.2%.

Figure 4. Average annual population growth rate of the main regions of the world, 1950-2010, %

1 - Developed ("more developed") countries in the report include the countries of North America (excluding Latin America and the Caribbean) and Europe (including the Baltic States and four CIS republics - Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova), Japan, Australia and New Zealand. All other countries, in accordance with the UN convention, are classified as developing ("less developed").

(Tr) is an indicator of the intensity of the change in the level of the series, which is expressed as a percentage, and the growth factor (Kp) is expressed in shares. Kp is defined as the ratio of the next level to the previous one or to the indicator taken as the basis for comparison. It determines how many times the level has increased compared to the base level, and in the case of a decrease, what part of the base level is compared.

We calculate the growth rate, multiply by 100 and get the growth rate

Can be calculated using the formulas:

Also, the growth rate can be defined as follows:

The growth rate is always positive. There is a certain relationship between chain and base growth rates: the product of chain growth factors is equal to the base growth rate for the entire period, and the quotient of dividing the subsequent base growth rate by the previous one is equal to the chain growth rate.

Absolute growth

Absolute growth characterizes the increase (decrease) in the level of the series over a certain period of time. It is determined by the formula:

where yi is the level of the compared period;

Уi-1 - Level of the previous period;

Y0 - the level of the base period.

Chain and basic absolute gains are related among themselves in this way: the sum of successive chain absolute growths is equal to the base, i.e., the total growth for the entire period of time:

Absolute growth can be positive or negative sign. It shows how much the level of the current period is above (below) the base one, and thus measures the absolute rate of increase or decrease in the level.

(Tpr) shows the relative value of the increase and shows how many percent the compared level is more or less than the level taken as the comparison base. It can be both positive and negative or equal to zero, it is expressed as a percentage and shares (growth factors); is calculated as the ratio of absolute growth to the absolute level taken as a base:

The growth rate can be obtained from the growth rate:

The growth rate can be obtained in this way:

Absolute value of 1% increase

The absolute value of 1% growth (A%) is the ratio of absolute growth to the growth rate, expressed as a percentage and shows the significance of each percentage of growth over the same period of time:

The absolute value of one percent increase equal to a hundredth of the previous or base level. It shows what absolute value is hidden behind the relative indicator - one percent increase.

Examples of calculation of dynamics indicators

Before studying the theory on the topic of dynamics indicators, you can see examples of tasks for finding: growth rate, growth rate, absolute growth, average dynamics

About dynamics indicators

When studying the dynamics of social phenomena, it becomes difficult to describe the intensity of change and calculate the average indicators of dynamics that are given to students.

Analysis of the intensity of change over time occurs with the help of indicators that are obtained by comparing levels. These indicators include: growth rate, absolute increase, absolute value of one percent increase. For a generalizing characteristic of the dynamics of the studied phenomena, : the average levels of the series and the average indicators of changes in the levels of the series are determined. Indicators of the analysis of dynamics can be determined by constant and variable bases of comparison. Here it is customary to call the comparable level the reporting level, and the level from which the comparison is made, the base level.

For calculation dynamics indicators on a constant base, you need to compare each level of the series with the same base level. Only used as a base First level in a series of dynamics or the level from which a new stage in the development of a phenomenon begins. The indicators that are calculated in this case are called basic. To calculate the indicators of the analysis of dynamics on a variable basis, each subsequent level of the series must be compared with the previous one. The calculated indicators of the dynamics analysis will be called chain indicators.