S with a dash in the middle. Superscripts (accents)

The Russian ruble has finally acquired an official graphic symbol - now the national currency will be denoted by the crossed-out letter "R". About why currencies need special graphic signs and why most symbols of the monetary units of the world contain horizontal "dashes" - in the material of the site.

Why do currencies need graphic symbols

Not every currency in the world can boast of its own sign. So, Latvian lats, Swiss francs, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish kronas, Croatian kunas and many other monetary units of the world do without special symbols. In total, according to the global Unicode standard (a standard for encoding characters and signs of written languages), at the moment only about thirty world currencies have officially registered graphic symbols. Among them there are already unused ones - for example, the signs of the Italian lira (£), German mark (ℳ), French franc (₣), obsolete after the introduction of the euro.

Meanwhile, it is hard not to admit that currencies with their own graphic designations are much more widespread than monetary units that do not have their own symbols. Thus, the dollar ($), pound (£), euro (€), as well as the yen (¥) are undoubtedly not only the most popular, but also the most powerful and influential currencies in the world.

Ruble symbol approval

The introduction of the official symbol of the Russian ruble, according to the Bank of Russia, has become a major event in the country's economy. "Moscow claims the status of an international financial center. There is an objective need to introduce a national currency symbol recognized at home and abroad," Elvira Nabiullina, chairman of the Central Bank of Russia, said on December 11, presenting the approved designation of the Russian currency.

The adoption of one sign as a designation of a monetary unit allows, in addition, to unify all variants of its former spelling: for example, after the official approval of the ruble symbol, you no longer have to doubt how best to say about the ruble in writing- 100 rubles, 100 rubles. or 100 rubles.

What do the symbols of different world currencies have in common

Some of the graphic images of monetary units developed naturally, as a result of various historical events, and some were formed during the development of many options, as well as popular votes. So there are no special requirements for creating a symbol of a particular currency. However, the graphic image must be convenient and easy to write, otherwise it will be useless - after all, currency signs are introduced in order to become recognizable and replace the full names of currencies in written speech.

Dollar, euro, pound, Japanese yen, Vietnamese dong, Israeli new shekel

Graphic designations of almost all currencies of the world have horizontal "dashes" in their structure. This is not only the British pound sterling (£), euro (€), Ukrainian hryvnia (₴), Japanese yen (¥), Kazakhstani tenge (₸) and, finally, the symbol of the Russian ruble that has received official status. Thus, the symbols of the Indian rupee (₹), the South Korean won (₩) and many other currencies of the world are also written using one or more crossed out horizontal bars.

Such stripes on signs are a universally recognized symbol of the stability of the currency in which they are written. That is why, as the representatives of the Central Bank of Russia themselves stated, the line is also used in the symbol of the ruble.

From Russia with love

The approved symbol of the Russian ruble, which is a crossed out "P", is not at all the first sign of the national currency, but the only one officially recognized. It should be added, however, that for a long time it was the most popular of the unofficial designations of the Russian currency.

At times Russian Empire there was another way to write the ruble: it was a combination of capital letters "r" and "y". According to the most common version, "p" was turned 90 degrees counterclockwise, and then "y" was written over the letter. Such a designation of the ruble was indicated not after the numbers, as today, but above them. However, despite the attempts of some publishers, such a sign of the ruble was not widely used in the press.

Now the graphic symbol of the ruble has become - and already quite legally - the crossed-out letter "R". Such sign was approved by the Central Bank of Russia on December 11. The selected symbol was recognized as the most popular according to the results of the voting, which the Central Bank conducted on its website. A one ruble coin with a new graphic sign of the national currency will appear in circulation as early as 2014.

The approved designation of the ruble. Photo: cbr.ru

In early November, the Central Bank submitted for public discussion the graphic symbol of the ruble. The signs-finalists were selected by the working group of the Bank of Russia from more than three thousand options. The crossed-out "P" during the voting was supported by more than 61% of respondents.

Crossed letters and more

Since horizontal stripes are a fairly popular "attribute" of currency symbols, it is not surprising that there are already a number of monetary units in the world, the signs of which are very similar to the new ruble designation. Thus, most countries in which the peso is accepted for payment use the American dollar sign ($) or similar, with only two transverse stripes, to designate their currencies. But in the Philippines, the peso, meanwhile, is denoted by a different symbol - ₱, which is similar to the new designation of the Russian ruble.

Symbols of various currencies of the world: including the American dollar, the Korean won, the Netherlands Antilles guilder

The Nigerian naira is also crossed out - however, already with two stripes (₦). In addition, similar designations - in the form of crossed out letters - have the Ukrainian hryvnia (₴) and the Lao kip (₭).

In the graphic styles of some national currencies, horizontal lines are present in a different way. So, the new Israeli shekel looks more like a beautiful rectangular pattern (₪), the taka of the countries of Bangladesh looks like a solid sign from the Russian alphabet (৳), and the guilder of the Netherlands Antilles looks like a mathematical notation for a function (ƒ).

Where did the most famous currency symbols come from?

Today there is no single view on the origin of the $ sign, but it is quite possible that the American currency owes its characteristic design to the inhabitants of Foggy Albion. The fact is that the English king George III ordered at one time to use Spanish reals in circulation, which cost 1/8 of the British pound sterling. This money was called "piece of eight" ("a piece of eight"), which eventually turned into an abbreviated "peso". Soon they began to pay with them in the North American colonies of England, where they were also called dollars.

The crossed-out eight was wisely chosen as the written symbol for "piece of eight". However, soon such a spelling turned out to be too long and inconvenient, as a result of which the symbol turned into a "truncated" eight - $.

According to the theory of American patriots, however, $ originated differently: becoming a simplified combination of the letters "U" and "S" (the first letter of the name of the United States - US), superimposed on each other. Another version of the appearance of the American dollar symbol says that the "progenitors" of the $ sign were the Spaniards, who in writing denoted the peso currency by combining the letters "P" and "S".

The roots of whimsical writing British pound sterling lie in the Latin letter "L", supplemented horizontally by a line (or two lines) in the middle. The very same "L" comes from the Latin word libra (libra, pound), denoting the main measure of weight in Ancient Rome and England.

Pound - £ or ₤ - is used not only in Great Britain, but also in some other countries of the world.

Euro, as a young currency, received its sign as a result of an analysis of European public opinion. It is believed that the authors of the € were four experts, whose names, for some reason, it was decided not to disclose.

According to the European Commission, the graphic image of the euro carries the significance of European civilization (it is symbolized by the Greek letter "epsilon"), identity with Europe itself (the letter "E") and stability (parallel lines crossing the letter).

From $ to €

1972 dates back to the first use of the symbol of any (some) currency. It may be necessary if, for example, the sign of the desired currency is not available in the computer font.

Designation of any currency

The sign of a certain currency is a circle, from which, like from the sun, four rays depart at an angle of 90 degrees with respect to each other.

Anna Teplitskaya

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In addition to using different types text formatting such as: changing the font, using bold or italic, sometimes it is necessary to make an upper underline in Word. Positioning a line over a letter is quite simple, consider several ways to solve this problem.

With the help of diacritics

Thanks to the character panel, you can make a dash on top as follows. Position the mouse cursor at the desired location in the text. Go to the "Insert" tab, then find and click in the "Symbols" area on the "Formula" button and select "Insert a new formula" from the drop-down menu.

An additional tab "Formula Tools" or "Designer" will open. From the options presented in the "Structures" area, select "Acts" and click on the box with the name "Dash".

In the added window, type necessary word or a letter.

The result will look like this.

Underlining from above with a shape

Using figures in the Word, you can underline the word both above and below. Let's take a look at the top underline. Initially, you need to type the desired text. Next, go to the "Insert" tab in the "Illustrations" area, select the "Shapes" button. In the new window, click on the "Line" shape.

Put a cross over the word at the beginning, press and drag the line to the end of the word, moving up or down to align the line and release.

You can change the color of the top underline, you need to click on the line and open the "Format" tab. Select the desired color by clicking on the Shape Outline button. You can also change the underline type and thickness. To do this, go to the sub-item below "Thickness" or "Strokes".

In accordance with the settings, the wand can be converted to a dash-dotted line, or changed to an arrow, in the desired direction.

Thanks to such simple options, putting a line over a letter or number will not take much time. You just need to choose the most suitable method from the above.

General patterns of use of superscript characters (accents).

There are four superscripts in the French script; three accents (grave, aigu, circonflexe) and tréma. Consider a comparative table of general positional patterns and functions of superscripts (including tréma).

The use of signs with letters and basic letter combinations:

In addition, tréma occurs in graphic syntagmas; ouï, uï, ayo, oy. No signs are placed above y, œ, eau. Only tréma can be placed over a nasal vowel (coïncider).

Accent circumflex.

Accent circonflexe can be placed over any simple vowel: â, ê, î, ô, û or combination of letters: aî, eî, oî, eû, oû, oê = except y, au, eau.

Accent circonflexe is never placed over a vowel preceding two consonants (except for indivisible groups: tr, cl, etc.) and the letter x. Exceptions: a) before double ss in the words châssis ‘frame’, châssis ‘chassis’ and in the forms of the verb croître; b) in the passé simple of the verbs venir, tenir (and their derivatives): nous vînmes, vous vîntes, etc.

Accent circonflexe is never placed over a vowel followed by another vowel, whether the latter is pronounced or not, for example: crû (m.p.), but: crue (f.p.). Exception: bailler.

In a combination of two vowels, accent circonflexe always stands above the second: traître, théâtre.

Accent circonflexe is not placed over the last letter of the word. Exception: participles dû, crû, mû, interjections ô, allô and foreign words and names (Salammbô, etc.), onomatopoeia (bê-ê!).

Accent circonflexe is not placed over e if it is the first letter in the word. Exception: être.

Accent circonflexe is never placed over nasal vowels. Even when an accent circonflexe is used in a given root, it disappears if the vowel takes on a nasal timbre:

traîner, entraîner, but: train, entrain; jeûner, but: a jeun. Exceptions: nous vînmes, vous vîntes, etc.

Accent circonflexe never breaks letter combinations, unlike accent aigu and tréma.

Reasons for using accent circonflexe.

The use of accent circonflexe is explained by a number of factors: etymological (it is placed in place of the disappeared letter), phonetic (to indicate the duration of a vowel in combination with a change in its timbre), morphological (in some types of word formation), differentiating (to distinguish between homonyms).

Accent circonflexe is most often used as a replacement for a letter that has disappeared from pronunciation and writing, primarily s. It is no coincidence that accent circonflexe is not used before s.
Exceptions: châsse, châssis, forms of the verb croître. dropped before another consonant s could be preserved in the same root in words borrowed from Latin and other languages, after the process of the disappearance of s stopped. In Russian borrowings, this s can also be represented. Therefore, as a way to check the spelling [ˆ], it is recommended to compare it with other words of the same root where s is preserved, or with the corresponding Russian words (alternating s -ˆ):

fête - festival - festival; bête - bestial - beast, etc.

In more rare cases, [ˆ] replaces another disappeared
consonant apart from s:

p:ame< anima; t: rêne < retina; d: Rhône < Rhodanus.

In a number of words, [ˆ] appeared instead of a gaping vowel, that is, before another vowel. The disappearance of this vowel caused the longitude of the remaining one, which is indicated by the sign [ˆ]:

myr< meur < maturum; sûr < seur < securum;

role< roole < rotulam; вge < eage < etaticum.

And in modern orthography [ˆ] is put instead of the omitted e muet in a number of cases of word production and inflection.

4. Disappearance s led to a change in the sound of the previous vowel. The omission of a vowel in gaping had a similar effect. The remaining vowel received longitude (the so-called historical longitude), and its timbre also changed: it is pronounced closed [α:], ô - closed [o:], ê - open [ε:]. This gave reason to interpret [ˆ] as an indicator of a change in the sound of a letter, and in a number of words it was introduced in order to convey the corresponding shade of pronunciation of a vowel, without regard to etymology, for example: cône, grâce, interjections ô, allô. Longitude is not always preserved, mainly in the stressed syllable; as a rule, such [ˆ] stands above the stressed vowel (most often above o), in other words of the same root the vowel becomes unstressed and loses longitude, [ˆ] may disappear, cf .: cône - conique; grâce - gracieux, etc.

Phonetic [ˆ] is often found in words of Greek origin to denote [ε:], [o:], [α:]. However, when using it, one cannot rely solely on pronunciation, since in many cases such a pronunciation of a vowel is not marked with the sign [ˆ]. So, they write cône, diplôme, arôme but: zone, cyclone, although in all words it sounds [o:].

In the use of [ˆ], two conflicting tendencies collide. On the one hand, the morphological tendency forces us to use [ˆ] in all words of a given root, regardless of the pronunciation tête [ε:] - têtu [e]), on the other hand, the phonetic tendency forces us to put and omit [ˆ] depending on the pronunciation in one and the same root (cône - conique). The struggle between these two tendencies leads to frequent deviations and inconsistencies in the use of the sign [ˆ]. In many cases [ˆ] is retained or omitted only by virtue of tradition. In addition, in modern pronunciation, the differential features of phonemes expressed by the sign [ˆ] are weakened: [ε] coincides with [e], â and a, ô and o are neutralized (especially in an unstressed syllable).

The arbitrary nature of the use of [ˆ] in some cases gave reason to use it out of touch with etymology and pronunciation by analogy or, conversely, as a distinctive sign (differentiation of homonyms). Sometimes [ˆ] is preserved in words of "solemn sound": chrême, châsse, baptême. In other cases, it is used ornamentally in loanwords to emphasize their "exoticism": pô, stûpa.

Accent circonflexe in verb forms, inflections, suffixes.

I. Accent circonflexe is written in the following verb forms.

1. In the forms of the 1st and 2nd sheets. pl. h. passé simple of all verbs:

nous parlâmes, dîmes, lûmes, eûmes, vînmes; vous parlâtes, dîtes, lûtes, eûtes, vîntes.

Exceptions: nous haïmes, vous haïtes (here tréma emphasizes the separate reading of a - i, which cannot show [ˆ]) and by tradition in nous ouïmes, vous ouïtes.

In the forms of the 3rd l. units h. imparfait du subjonctif of all verbs: qu'il parlât, qu'il dot, qu'il eût, qu'il vont; [ˆ] here - historical origin (from parlast, etc.). Exception: qu'il hait.

In the forms of verbs in -aître, -oître (naître, connaître, paître, paraître, croître and their derivatives). In two cases before t:

1) in the infinitive: naître, accroître and, consequently, in futur and conditionnel: il naîtra, il naîtrait;

2) in the 3rd l. units h. présent de l'indicatif: il naît, il accroît. In these verbs [ˆ] replaces the dropped s. Before s [ˆ] disappears: je nais, tu nais, but: il naît, etc.

4. In the forms of the verb croître ‘to grow’, in contrast to the verb croire ‘to believe’.

Present de l'indicatif Imperatif

croire: je crois, tu crois, il croit crois

croître: je croos, tu croîs, il croît croîs

croire: je crus, tu crus, il crut, ils crurent

croître: je crûs, tu crûs, il crût, ils crûrent

Imparfait du subjonctif

croire:que je crusse, tu crusses, il crût, nous crussions, vous crussiez, ils crussent

croître: que je crûsse, tu crûsses, il crût, nous crûssions, vous crûssiez, ils crûssent

Note. The derived verbs accroître, décroître have [ˆ] only in the 3rd letter. units h. présent de l'indicatif: il décroît - by general rule verbs in aître, -oître.

5. In the 3rd l. units h. présent de l'indicatif of the verbs plaire (déplaire, complaire), gésir, clore - pepper, t (instead of the dropped s): il plaît, il déplaît, il complaît, il gît, il clôt.

Note: il éclot is currently written without the accent circonflexe.

6. In the participe passé of some verbs:

crû (croître) - in contrast to cru (croire) and cru (adj and m); dû (devoir) - unlike du (article contracté and partitif); mû (mouvoir) - according to tradition, instead of a dropped vowel in a gaping (< теи).

In the plural and in feminine forms, the accent circonflexe disappears: crus, crue; dus, due; mus, mue.

Note. In derivative verbs [ˆ] is not used: accru, décru, indu, ému, promu; however, they write redû (redevoir), recrû p. p. and s m (recroître) but: recru (de fatigue).

Accent circonflexe is used in the following cases in word formation.

In the suffix of adjectives and nouns -âtre (expresses the incompleteness of the feature): noirâtre ‘blackish’, marâtre ‘stepmother’.

7. In the adjective suffix -être: champêtre ‘field’ (cf.: terrestre ‘earthly’).

8. In the endings of the names of the winter months of the republican calendar (in 1793-1805): nivôse, pluviôse, ventôse.

 Listen to the audio lesson with additional explanations

I think that many have already noticed that sometimes there are different icons above and below the French letters: sticks, houses, dots, worms, commas ...

As you understand, they are drawn for a reason.

The letter of the alphabet already known to us is e (this is the one when we fold our lips as if we were talking O, but we say uh) with different icons is pronounced differently.

é

If you see such an icon above it (accent aigu (acute accent) or “stick to the right”), you need to pronounce it, smiling.

Prepare your lips for the sound And and say it yourself uh.

That is, stretch the lips to the ears as much as possible. And with such a smile from ear to ear and say uh.

fé e, bé bé, café, é cole, é tudie, ré cit, té lé, é té, é crire, litté rature, pré fé ré

Cé cile dé teste le café.
C "est l" é cole numé ro deux.
C "est la discipline pré fé ré e de Bé né dicte.
Le bé bé de Pé pé a le nez e pate.
Il a pitié des bé bé s.

e ê ё

The scientific name for these icons is: accent grave, accent circonflexe, tréma (let's call them in our own way - a stick to the left, a house, two dots).

All three options are pronounced the same, like Russian uh.

trè s, prè s, aprè s, frè re, pè re, mè re, poè te, crè me, problè me, modè le
fê te, bê te, rê ve, crê pe, forê t, fenê tre, Noё l

C "est le pè re de Pierre.
Le Noé l est ma fê te préférée.

I hope everyone knows that the French language grew out of Latin (as well as Italian, Spanish). That is, in French words dominated by Latin roots.

So. Where in Latin the letter s was in this root, in modern French the letter is above house. But in other languages (and not only Romance, but, for example, in English and Russian), this s has been preserved.

look at the word fê te!

Let's restore the letter hidden under the house. What happened? Festa.

What does it remind us of? Look at the Spanish word fiesta and Russian word"festival". Right! It's a "holiday"! So you can guess the meaning of the word in which there is e with a house.

And now the word forê t.

We act in the same way. Restoring the letter s - forest.

Those who speak English have already understood that this is a "forest". By the way, this letter has been preserved in French, for example, in the word forestier (forester).

Two dots can stand not only above e, but also above other letters too.

The main purpose of this icon is to separate vowels.

Usually two vowels in a row make one sound. For example, the letter combination a i is read as uh(more on this later).

But if you put not one, but two dots over i, this letter combination will be read as ai.

naï f, égoï ste, Raphaé l, Noé l

The house (accent circonflexe) and the “stick to the left” (accent grave) can stand not only above the letter e.

These icons can be used to differentiate the meaning of words.

du - masculine partial article (or continuous article)
dû is the past tense of the verb devoir

sur - preposition "on, about"

a - verb avoir (to have) for pronouns "he, she"
à - preposition "in"

ou - union "or"
où is an interrogative word “where? Where?"

la - pronoun "her" (answers the question "who?")
là - adverb "there, here"

Attention! It has no effect on pronunciation.

ç

garçon, leçon, maçon, façon, façade, limaçon, reçu

Apostrophe

This is such a comma above and to the right of the letter, which hides an extra vowel underneath.

In French everything should be fine :) But two vowels in a row is a mess.

You can't leave de elle. It is necessary to hide the vowel in the preposition under the apostrophe. It turns out d "elle.

Instead of le arbre - l "arbre, je ai - j" ai.

You get used to it very quickly, because very quickly you realize that it is really much more convenient to pronounce it this way.

Lesson summary"Letters with icons":

é (lips for sound And and say it yourself uh):
Cé cile dé teste le café.
è ê ё (Russian uh):
Le pè re de Noé l rê ve de fê te.
ç (Russian With):
Le garç on a reç u une leç on.
apostrophe:
instead of le arbre - l "arbre, je ai - j" ai.
two dots above a vowel separate it from the previous one, that is, they do not form letter combinations, but are pronounced separately:
egoï ste, Noé l
house over a vowelû distinguishes the meaning of words, does not affect pronunciation:
su r - preposition "on, about"
sû r - adjective "confident"
wand to the left above the letterà distinguishes the meaning of words, does not affect pronunciation:
a - verb avoir (to have) for pronouns "he, she"
à - preposition "in"