Augustus Octavian, Roman Emperor (63 BC - 14 AD). Augustus is an honorary name, given by the Senate in 27 BC. Guy Octavius is the name given at birth. From 44 BC known as Gaius Julius Caesar after his adoptive father's name. For the period 44-27. BC. in English historical scholarship it is customary to call him Octavian, although he himself never used the name Octavian. The name Augustus (Greek: Sevastos) was in fact borne by all subsequent emperors of Rome, but historians have never used this name to single out anyone in particular.
Octavius was born in Rome on September 23, 63 BC. and came from a wealthy and respected, but closed family from the city of Velitra, Latium region. His father, Gaius Octavius (d. 58 BC), the first member of the family to become a senator, was praetor in 61 and successfully ruled Macedonia. His mother, Atia, was the daughter of Julia, sister of the great Julius Caesar. And this relationship determined Octavius’s career. Caesar singled out young Octavius from among his relatives, placing special hopes on him: he presented him with military insignia at his African triumph, took him with him to the Spanish campaign of 45, made him a patrician and ensured his election as pontiff. Finally, due to the absence of a legitimate son, Caesar in his will declared Octavius to be his adopted son and heir to three-quarters of the property.
The period of exaltation.
When Caesar was assassinated in 44, Octavius was receiving his education in Apollonia Illyria. He went to Italy and, having learned that he had become the son and heir of Caesar, decided to seek a dangerous inheritance. His position was very weak. Caesar's heir was a reserved eighteen-year-old youth, without experience or influential connections. The anti-Caesarian party treated him with natural suspicion, and the recognized leader of the Caesarians, Mark Antony, having seized Caesar's money and archive, refused him. Having only the fact of Caesar's adoption to his credit, Octavius immediately appropriated the name of Caesar, distributed the money due to the people, according to Caesar's will, from his own pocket, and arranged at his own expense ludi Victoriae Caesaris (games in honor of Caesar's victories).
In order to intimidate the opposition and provide themselves with funds, the triumvirs subjected three hundred senators and two thousand people from the equestrian class to proscriptions. Antony and Octavian then marched into Macedonia to defeat Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius (Caesar's assassins). After the victory at Philippi (42), Antony took control of the eastern provinces, and Octavian returned to Italy, where, after carrying out ruthless confiscations, he provided the veterans with land plots. In 41, he was forced to wage war in Perusia (Perugia), suppressing a rebellion raised by Antony's brother Lucius Antony, who was supported by Fulvia, Antony's wife. Antony was sensitive to Octavian's actions, but in 40 in Brundisium (Brindisi) a reconciliation was reached between them, according to which all eastern provinces went to Antony, and all western provinces went to Octavian, with the exception of Africa, which remained with Lepidus. To strengthen the alliance, Antony married Octavia, Octavian's sister (by that time Fulvia had died). The following year, at Misenum, near the Bay of Naples, a pact was signed with Sextus Pompey, in which the triumvirs recognized his authority over Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Anthony then returned to the East. Sextus soon denounced the Misenian Pact, and tensions arose again between Octavian and Antony. However, thanks to the efforts made by Octavian, reconciliation was again achieved in 37 in Tarentum (Taranto).
The triumvirate, whose legal term of power had expired, was extended for another five years, and the triumvirs agreed to act together against Sextus Pompey. In 36, Octavian and Lepidus organized a landing in Sicily; although Octavian himself suffered a severe defeat, his faithful associate and best military leader Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa saved the situation, and Sextus was defeated. Lepidus, having quarreled with his ally after the victory, was abandoned by his troops and deposed. Octavian, having since 38 the title of "imperator", originally denoting a judicial office in charge of military command, and calling himself imperator Caesar divi filius (Emperor Caesar, son of God), returned to Rome to celebrate an ovation, among other honors received the sacred title of plebeian tribune.
Now Octavian had power over the entire West, and Antony over the entire East, and it became clear that a clash between the two supreme rulers was inevitable. Caesar's heir gained authority and popularity thanks to his victory over Sextus, which ensured the safety of grain supply routes to Rome. Over the next few years, he and his associates, especially Agrippa, were fruitfully engaged in public affairs. In addition, Octavian, having gathered his troops, achieved even greater glory during the conquest of Illyria (Dalmatia) in 35-33. Meanwhile, Antony was losing his influence due to unsuccessful Parthian campaigns and became alien to the Roman people, becoming intimate with Cleopatra. Thus, Octavian had the opportunity to rise as the head of Italy and Rome, opposing the eastern queen and her degenerate lover.
The crisis came at the end of the second five-year term of the triumvirate, when Octavian demanded that Antony resign his powers. Consuls and more than three hundred senators left Italy and joined Antony, but Octavian forced the Vestal Virgins to annul Antony's will and promulgate it from the podium of the Senate. It was a very rash document that elevated Cleopatra and all her children born from Anthony, and aroused public opinion against him. Caesar's heir had the opportunity to obtain an oath of personal allegiance from the entire people of Italy, who demanded that he become a leader in the coming war. All the western provinces took his side. War was declared specifically on Cleopatra, and in 31 Octavian, having established his state position by accepting the consulate (during 32 he essentially remained a private civilian), took military command. At the Battle of Actium on September 2, 31, he decisively defeated the combined armies of Antony and Cleopatra, who fled to Egypt. On August 1, 30, he entered Alexandria; Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Egypt was annexed and enormous treasures were seized. The following year, Gaius Octavius returned to Rome, where he celebrated a magnificent triple triumph: the conquest of Illyria, the victory at Actium and the capture of Egypt.
Legislation of Augustus.
Thus, Octavian's power in the empire became undeniable, but its legality remained in question. Starting from the age of 31, he began to be elected annually to the consulate, but at the same time he exceeded all legal powers, demanding unlimited supreme power for himself in accordance with the people's oath of 32 years. Now, after the end of the war, the further strengthening of monarchical power could alienate the upper and middle strata of the Italian population, who were in a republican spirit, from him. In 28, Octavian began to repeal the illegal acts of the triumvirate and, together with his friend, consul Agrippa, carried out a census and a harsh purge of the Senate, which had grown too large and included many undesirable persons. Then, on January 13, 27, he solemnly resigned his emergency powers and reserved one of the two annual consulates. In gratitude, on January 16, 27, the Senate awarded him the honorary name Augustus. He urged Caesar's heir not to abandon the republic, and Octavian agreed to take upon himself the task of pacifying the provinces that could not be governed. To this end, he was appointed for ten years the ruler of very large provinces, including Spain (except its southern region, Baetica), Gaul, Syria and Egypt, and was also given the power to declare wars and conclude treaties. With the exception of these powers, which had precedents in the era of the late Republic, when such emergency powers were given by vote in the Senate to Pompey and Caesar, the government of the republic was restored. Free elections were resumed; the magistrates, under the direction of the senate, performed their usual functions; the proconsuls, who received power over the provinces for a period of one year, were no longer subordinate to Augustus. On coins Octavian was designated as libertatis populi Romani vindex (defender of the freedom of the Roman people). At the same time, he retained control over all the legions, with the exception of a few - those commanded by the proconsuls of Illyria, Macedonia and Africa.
Augustus spent the next three years (27-25 BC) in his western provinces, where he finally managed to subjugate the restless tribes of Northwestern Spain, Asturias and Cantabria. Moreover, every year Octavian nominated himself for the consulate and, naturally, was elected to this position. Such a long stay as consul was not provided for by the regulations of 27 and therefore began to cause growing discontent. On the one hand, the nobility had their own complaints due to the fact that the chances of obtaining a consulate had dropped by half. On the other hand, everyone realized that such a long stay of one person in the highest government position was contrary to the law and spirit of the republic. Discontent reached its climax in 23, when Aulus Terentius Varus Murena, second consul and hitherto loyal ally of Augustus, plotted to assassinate him. Octavian realized that if he wanted to avoid the fate of Julius Caesar, he would have to make more serious concessions, and from July 1, 23 BC. Augustus refused the consulate, after which, with the exception of two years (5 and 2 BC), he never sought it again. Gaius Octavius remained proconsul of his provinces (his rule in them did not cease until 17), however, wanting to show that his power would not last longer than necessary, Augustus abandoned the provinces in which peace had already been established - Narbonne Gaul (Southern Gaul) and Cyprus. As compensation, Octavian received some privileges. It was established that, unlike other proconsuls, he does not lose imperium, i.e. command position in the troops, upon returning to Rome and receives majus imperium, or supreme powers in relation to other proconsuls, i.e. if necessary, has the right to disregard their decisions. Augustus also received the power to convene the Senate and determine its activities. Finally, he received the lifelong power of plebeian tribune. The meaning of this power is not entirely clear. She gave Octavian certain rights; introduce legislative acts and veto orders of the Senate and officials, but Augustus used this right in rare cases, although it could be useful in any dangerous situations. It was rather a propaganda technique through which Octavian gained the support of the common people, who considered the tribunes to be defenders and champions of their rights.
In 22, Augustus went on a long trip to the eastern provinces and did not return to Rome until 19. If the republican opposition was satisfied with the new state of affairs, the people were dissatisfied with it and proposed that Octavian establish a dictatorship, accept an annual consulate with an indefinite extension, as well as a number of other extraordinary positions. In 22 and 20 the people insisted on his election as consul, but Augustus refused to accept this position. It seemed that the masses were truly frightened by the possibility that Octavian would finally retire to the provinces and abandon them to the mercy of the Senate. Concerned about the threat of revolts, which the authorities were not able to suppress, the Senate demanded that Augustus intervene in the situation and celebrate his return at the altar of Fortuna Redux (the altar of the goddess Fortuna, who patronizes those who return to their homeland). Now the Republicans were ready to make concessions. According to the historian Dio Cassius, the title "imperium" was given to Augustus for life. The reliability of this fact is doubtful, but what is certain is that from then on Octavian had executive powers in the territory of Rome and Italy at the consul level. The legality of his position was now finally approved and was not subject to any further changes. Augustus was unanimously elected as pontifex maximus in 12, after the death of Lepidus, who had previously held the position. And in 2 BC. he was hailed as pater patriae (father of the fatherland), but all these titles were only manifestations of honor. He was reinstated as provincial governor at intervals of five and ten years until his death in 14 AD.
Much debate arose over whether Augustus really intended to restore the republican system or whether he wanted to create a system of dual power, a diarchy in which he would divide the administration of the empire between himself and the Senate, or whether Gaius Octavius simply maintained the appearance of a republic, indulging the sentiments of the upper class. Some of his statements indicate that at first he may have hoped to restore order in the empire, and then retire, handing over the reins of government to the Senate. However, such hopes, if he had ever cherished them, soon faded. Augustus certainly made efforts to intensify the activities of the magistrates and the senate in governing the country and promoting reforms of the republican administrative system. For example, he transferred some functions that the aediles had previously neglected to the newly created colleges of persons authorized by the Senate, such as curators aquarium (responsible for water supply). In relation to the aediles, responsible for the activities of fire brigades and the supply of grain to Rome, this was the last of the innovations that streamlined their functions, which Augustus personally carried out. At the same time, he tried to interfere as little as possible in lawmaking. Octavian kept the electoral system free, reserving the right to recommend to the people the election of certain candidates whom he favored. However, at the end of his life, this commendatio turned into a strict right to nominate a limited number of candidates for election without competition. Augustus made great efforts to get the Senate to revise the rotational system of membership, and although on two occasions (in 18 and 11 BC) he had to act in a strong-willed manner, in 4 AD. he finally succeeded in achieving his original goal. At the same time, he held real power firmly in his hands and under no circumstances weakened his personal control over the army.
After 19, Augustus had legal prerogatives that allowed him to dictate his will in cases of almost any unforeseen circumstances. Outside his province, he preferred to use his power minimally and influence through his personal moral authority (auctoritas). Thus, although Octavian introduced some laws as a plebeian tribune, the main lawmaking in the late period of his reign was carried out by the consuls who were under his influence. The consuls also ensured the activities of the Senate, although it was already determined in a narrow circle of people with Augustus at its head. Bearing the title of majus imperium, he, however, had much greater capabilities than just directing the actions of the consuls. Of all his official titles, Octavian ignored imperium and preferred tribuncia potestas. He also preferred to be known as princeps, the senior civil servant of the republic.
Perhaps the most important evidence that Augustus never seriously considered restoring the republic comes from the fact that he was constantly preoccupied with a potential successor. Octavian was criticized for his desire to find one among his family members, but serious political considerations also served as the basis for this choice, in addition to personal feelings. The legions were loyal to the Caesar family, as demonstrated early in Augustus' career, and the stability of the regime depended largely on their loyalty. Fate did not give Octavian sons. His marriage to Scribonia, in 40 BC, brought only a daughter, Julia, born in 39 BC. On her birthday, divorcing Scribonia, Augustus in 38 married Livia Drusilla, to with whom he fell passionately in love and whose husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero, forced him to divorce her. The marriage turned out to be happy and long (Livia survived Augustus), but childless, Octavian had only one close male relative - Marcus Claudius Marcellus, the son of his sister Octavia. Livia had her own children from her first marriage, the future emperor Tiberius and Nero Claudius Drusus, who were settled in the house of Augustus.
The emperor's first choice fell on Marcellus. He married him to Julia and gave him a corresponding promotion. This apparently led to friction with his loyal comrade Agrippa, who, pacified, left the stage in 23 and became a colleague of Augustus in the ranks of proconsuls, receiving the East under his control. Marcellus died the following year, and Julia promptly married Agrippa. This marriage produced two sons, Gaius Caesar (b. 20), whom Augustus declared as his adopted son, and Lucius Caesar (b. 17). In 18, Agrippa's proconsular powers, together with those of Augustus, were extended for another five years, and for the same period he shared his power as tribune with Augustus.
Augustus transferred the role of Agrippa to Livia's eldest son Tiberius, to whom he married Julia and forced Tiberius to divorce his beloved wife. In 6 BC. Tiberius received the powers of tribune for five years, but almost immediately retired to Rhodes and refused all participation in the government. The reason for the quarrel became obvious the following year, when Agrippa's son, Gaius Caesar, fifteen years old, was elected consul with a five-year delay in taking office and declared members of the equestrian order princeps juventutis (head of the younger generation); in 2 BC Lucius Caesar was awarded the same honors.
Tiberius, who had been serving full-time in Pannonia and Germany as Augustus's legate, had no intention of playing a secondary role under the two youths. Octavian was consistent in his policy, appointing in 1 BC. Guy Caesar to a proconsular position, entrusting him with solving the problems of Parthia and Armenia. However, he again had to be disappointed in his hopes. Lucius died in 2 AD, and Gaius in 4 AD. Augustus had to turn again to Tiberius, whom he declared to be his adopted son and introduced him to joint government for ten years with the powers of proconsul and tribune. These powers were renewed and extended in 14 AD. shortly before the death of Augustus.
AUGUST (lat. exalted), (born 09/23/63 BC in Rome, died 08/19/14 AD in Nola), son of Gaius Octavius and Atia, daughter of Caesar’s sister, Julia; great-nephew of Gaius Julius Caesar. Before 44 BC e. bore the name Gaius Octavius, from 44, after adoption by his great-uncle, - Gaius Julius Caesar, from 27 BC. e. - Emperor Caesar Augustus. Augustus accompanied Caesar during his campaigns in Spain, was awarded orders, granted the title of patrician and various priestly positions.
After the death of Caesar, appointed heir in his will, Augustus began a fight with Antony, with whom, however, after the victory at Mutina and the campaign against Rome together with Lepidus, he concluded a second triumvirate on November 27, 1943. After a bloody reprisal against political opponents through proscriptions (Cicero was among the dead), the triumvirs managed in 42 to defeat the troops of Caesar's killers - Brutus and Cassius. During the division of the Empire, according to the agreement concluded in Brundisium (modern Brindisi), Augustus received the western part of the state, Anthony - the eastern, Lepidus - the African provinces. In 37, the triumvirate was extended for five years. In 36, at Mila and Navloch, a victory was won over Sextus Pompey, the son of the famous Pompey. After Lepidus was removed from power, Augustus began a fierce struggle against Antony. He was stripped of all positions and titles, and war was declared on his ally, the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. After winning the naval battle of Actium in 31, Augustus became the sole Roman ruler.
Returning to Rome, in honor of the end of the war, he ordered the temple of Janus to be closed in 29. In January 27 BC. e. Senate meetings were held at which questions about the position of Caesar's heir and the further development of the Roman Empire were considered. On January 13, thirty-five-year-old Augustus was transferred by the Senate to proconsular power in all provinces in need of military protection for a period of ten years. The provinces were divided into senatorial and imperial. The main Roman troops were concentrated in the latter. Thus, Augustus received command of most of the Roman army. On January 16 he was awarded the honorary title of Augustus. In July 27 BC. e. The power of the tribune was transferred to Augustus for life; his proconsular power was extended to Rome, and provincial governors were subordinate to him. Thus, the state-legal basis of the first princeps and all his successors was created, based on two pillars: the imperium (from 19 BC) and tribunician power.
The power of the emperor was supported by the authority he created and a number of sacred functions he performed. As “the son of Caesar, who was numbered among the gods,” Augustus was deified by the people, which later led to the emergence of the cult of the emperor. He was also the High Priest (Pontifex maximus) and the Father of the Fatherland (Pater patriae).
In foreign policy, the activities of Augustus, aimed at strengthening Roman power while abandoning new conquests, were marked by both successes and defeats. The Iberian Peninsula and Gaul were firmly integrated into the Roman provincial system, the border along the Rhine was strengthened (the German conquest was ended by the battle in the Teutoburg Forest), the northern border of Italy was strengthened by the conquest of the Alpine peoples and the conquest of Pannonia. Where the Romans did not establish new provinces, their influence was guaranteed by clientel states (for example, Noricum, Moesia, Thrace), which also existed in Asia Minor (Armenia, Cappadocia, Commagene). The return in 20 BC was considered a great success of Roman diplomacy. e. taken by the Parthians in 53 BC. e. Roman military insignia as a trophy at the Battle of Carrhae.
In the field of internal politics, the renewal of the composition of the Senate and comprehensive reforms (the organization of an official, paid apparatus consisting of senators, equestrians and freedmen) were of great importance. These reforms improved the financial situation in the empire, primarily its provinces, and had a beneficial effect on the establishment of order in Rome (construction, fire service and police, grain supply, etc.); A permanent paid army was created. Innovations have affected legislation and law. It is highly doubtful, however, that the adopted laws on marriage and sumptuary had many supporters.
The successful implementation of domestic and foreign policy was impossible without the involvement of knowledgeable assistants and intelligent advisers, among whom Agrippa and Maecenas stood out. Their influence explains the well-known flowering of art and science under Augustus. The emperor and his time were glorified in their works by Horace, Propertius and Virgil; Livy wrote Roman history; the scientist Hyginus became the head of the library based on the Palatine Hill. Remarkable architectural structures were erected in Rome: the imperial palace and forum, the sundial, the altar of the Peace of Augustus, the mausoleum on the Campus Martius and others. The construction of roads, aqueducts, temples, libraries, meeting houses and schools in Italy and the provinces, along with the founding of new cities and the expansion of civil rights, contributed to the spread of Roman culture and civilization. August died on August 19, 2014 in Nola. The month of his death was named "August". One of the most difficult problems - the choice of a successor - was solved by Augustus ten years before his death. In 4 AD he adopted Tiberius Claudius Nero, the son of his third wife Livia from her first marriage. Tiberius succeeded Augustus on the throne and received the name Emperor Tiberius (Tiberius Caesar Augustus). After Augustus, a statistical outline of the Roman Empire and a list of his deeds entitled “Res Gestae Divi Augusti” remained. Fragments of several copies of this work have been found, the most valuable among them being the Monumentum Ancyranum. The biography of Augustus was written by Suetonius. Of the surviving images of Augustus, the most famous is the so-called statue from Primaporta, found in the imperial villa north of Rome, which is currently kept in the Vatican.
Dictionary of Antiquity. Per. with him. - M.: Progress, 1989
Emperor(title given to a victorious commander) from 43 BC. e. proclaimed 21 times.
Not earlier than 37 BC. e. became an augur;
between 37 and 34 BC e. - Member of the “College of Fifteen for Sacred Rites”;
no later than 17 BC. e. - member of the “College of the Seven Epulons” (priests in charge of organizing religious meals);
March 6, 12 BC e. became Pontifex Maximus;
February 5, 2 BC e. received the title of Father of the Fatherland.
Tribune power received 37 times (first time - July 1, 23 BC, then annually on June 26.)
Consul: I (43 BC), II (33 BC), III (31 BC), IV (30 BC), V ( 29 BC), VI (28 BC), VII (27 BC), VIII (26 BC), IX (25 BC) . BC), X (24 BC), XI (23 BC), XII (5 BC), XIII (2 BC AD)
He was buried in Rome in the Mausoleum of Augustus.
Wives:
(1) (Claudia) from 43 BC e.
(2) (Scribonia) from 40 BC. e.
(3) (Livia Drusilla) from 38 BC e.
Children:
(Julia) (from Scribonia)
Names, titles, relatives are given by:
1995 Chris Scarre. Chronicle of the Roman Emperors. Thames & Hudson Ltd, London, 2002.
Augustus Octavian, Roman emperor (63 BC - 14 AD). From birth, the future emperor of Rome received the name Guy Octavius, honorific name August was assigned to him by the Senate in 27 BC, and from 44 BC. Augustus Octavian is known as Gaius Julius Caesar, after his adoptive father's name.
It is interesting that Augustus himself did not call himself “Octavian” - this is an “invention” of historians in order to highlight the person of one of the greatest emperors of Rome among his followers, for whom the name “Augustus” (in Greek “Sevastos”) was a kind of “application” " (if not a synonym) to the title of emperor.
Octavian Augustus was born in Rome on September 23, 63 BC. and came from a wealthy and respected family from the city of Velitra, region of Latium. His father, Gaius Octavius, the first member of the family to become a senator, was praetor in 61 and successfully ruled Macedonia. Mother, Atia, was the daughter of Julia, sister of the great Julius Caesar. And this relationship determined Octavius’s career.
Julius Caesar singled out young Octavius from among his relatives, placing special hopes on him: he presented him with military insignia at his African triumph, took him with him to the Spanish campaign of 45, made him a patrician and ensured his election as pontiff.
Finally, due to the lack of a legitimate heir, Caesar in his will declared Octavius to be his adopted son and heir to three-quarters of the property.
Octavian Augustus - adopted son of Julius Caesar and Roman Emperor
Octavian Augustus and the struggle for the Roman throne
When Caesar was assassinated in 44, Octavius was studying in Apollonia Illyria. He went to Italy and, having learned that he had become the son and heir of Caesar, decided to seek a dangerous inheritance. His position was very weak. Caesar's heir was a reserved eighteen-year-old youth, without experience or influential connections. The anti-Caesarian party treated him with natural suspicion, and the recognized leader of the Caesarians, Mark Antony, having seized Caesar's money and archive, refused him.
Having only the fact of his adoption by Caesar to his credit, Octavius immediately appropriated the name of Caesar, distributed the money due to the people, according to Caesar’s will, from his own pocket, and arranged at his own expense ludi Victoriae Caesaris(games in honor of Caesar's victories).
At the same time, Octavian tried to ingratiate himself with Cicero, who believed that he had the opportunity to use the young man as a means in the fight against Anthony, and then discount him. When a break between Antony and the Senate matured, Octavian illegally gathered an army of three thousand veterans of his adoptive father’s army, and also managed to lure two of Antony’s legions to his side.
Having declared war on Antony, the Senate, at the suggestion of Cicero, determined the official status of Octavian, making him a senator and declaring imperium pro praetori; at the same time, the Senate also obliged him to assist in the conduct of the war the two consuls elected in 43. Antony was defeated at Mutina (Modena), but both consuls died, and thus Octavian found himself in command of the entire victorious army. He immediately demanded the consulate and, when the Senate began to object, he marched on Rome.
On August 19, 43, Octavian was elected consul, along with his uncle Quintus Pedius and fulfilled his first duty to his adoptive father by enforcing the law of proscriptions against his murderers. Now Caesar's heir could negotiate on an equal footing with Antony, who had joined forces with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who ruled Gaul. The three of them met in Bononia (Bologna) and agreed to share supreme power among themselves. They were proclaimed triumvirs with supreme powers for the period from November 27, 43 to December 31, 38.
In order to intimidate the opposition and provide themselves with funds, the triumvirs subjected three hundred senators and two thousand people from the equestrian class to proscriptions.
Victorious Triumvirate
Antony and Octavian then marched into Macedonia to crush Mark of Junius Brutus And Gaius Cassius(Caesar's killers). After victories at Philippi(42) Antony took control of the eastern provinces, and Octavian returned to Italy, where, after carrying out ruthless confiscations, he provided the veterans with land plots.
In 41, he was forced to wage war in Perusia (Perugia), suppressing a rebellion raised by Antony's brother Lucius Antony, who was supported by Fulvia, Antony's wife. Antony was sensitive to Octavian's actions, but in 40 in Brundisium (Brindisi) a reconciliation was reached between them, according to which all eastern provinces went to Antony, and all western provinces went to Octavian, with the exception of Africa, which remained with Lepidus.
To strengthen the alliance, Antony married Octavia, Octavian's sister (by that time Fulvia had died). The following year, at Misenum, near the Bay of Naples, a pact was signed with Sextus Pompey, in which the triumvirs recognized his authority over Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Anthony then returned to the East. Sextus soon denounced the Misenian Pact, and tensions arose again between Octavian and Antony. However, thanks to the efforts made by Octavian, reconciliation was again achieved in 37 in Tarentum (Taranto).
The triumvirate, whose legal term of power had expired, was extended for another five years, and the triumvirs accepted an agreement on joint action against Sextus Pompey. In 36, Octavian and Lepidus organized a landing in Sicily; although Octavian himself suffered a severe defeat, his faithful companion and best military leader Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa saved the situation, and Sextus was defeated.
Lepidus, having quarreled with his ally after the victory, was abandoned by his troops and deposed. Octavian, having since 38 the title "imperator", originally denoting a judicial office that was in charge of military command, and calling himself imperator Caesar divi filius (Emperor Caesar, son of God), returned to Rome to celebrate an ovation, among other honors received the sacred title of plebeian tribune.
Now Octavian had power over the entire West, and Antony over the entire East, and it became clear that a clash between the two supreme rulers was inevitable. Caesar's heir gained authority and popularity thanks to his victory over Sextus, which ensured the safety of grain supply routes to Rome. Over the next few years, he and his associates, especially Agrippa, were fruitfully engaged in public affairs. In addition, Octavian, having gathered his troops, achieved even greater glory during the conquest of Illyria (Dalmatia) in 35-33.
Meanwhile, Antony was losing his influence due to unsuccessful Parthian campaigns and became alien to the Roman people, becoming intimate with Cleopatra. Thus, Octavian had the opportunity to rise as the head of Italy and Rome, opposing the eastern queen and her degenerate lover.
The crisis came at the end of the second five-year term of the triumvirate, when Octavian demanded that Antony resign his powers. Consuls and more than three hundred senators left Italy and joined Antony, but Octavian forced the Vestal Virgins to annul Antony's will and promulgate it from the podium of the Senate. It was a very rash document that elevated Cleopatra and all her children born from Anthony, and aroused public opinion against him.
Caesar's heir had the opportunity to obtain an oath of personal allegiance from the entire people of Italy, who demanded that he become a leader in the coming war. All the western provinces took his side.
Octavian Augustus - legitimate emperor of Rome
War was declared specifically on Cleopatra, and in 31 Octavian, having established his state position by accepting the consulate (during 32 he essentially remained a private civilian), took military command.
IN Battle of Actium On September 2, 31, he decisively defeated the combined armies of Antony and Cleopatra, who fled to Egypt. On August 1, 30, he entered Alexandria; Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Egypt was annexed and enormous treasures were seized. The following year, Gaius Octavius returned to Rome, where he celebrated a magnificent triple triumph: the conquest of Illyria, the victory at Actium and the capture of Egypt.
Thus, Octavian's power in the empire became undeniable, but its legality remained in question. Starting from the age of 31, he began to be elected annually to the consulate, but at the same time he exceeded all legal powers, demanding unlimited supreme power for himself in accordance with the people's oath of 32 years.
Now, after the end of the war, the further strengthening of monarchical power could alienate the upper and middle strata of the Italian population, who were in a republican spirit, from him. In 28, Octavian began to repeal the illegal acts of the triumvirate and, together with his friend, consul Agrippa, carried out a census and a harsh purge of the Senate, which had grown too large and included many undesirable persons. Then, on January 13, 27, he solemnly resigned his emergency powers and reserved one of the two annual consulates. In gratitude, on January 16, 27, the Senate awarded him the honorary name Augustus.
He urged Caesar's heir not to abandon the republic, and Octavian agreed to take upon himself the task of pacifying the provinces that could not be governed. To this end, he was appointed for ten years the ruler of very large provinces, including Spain (except its southern region, Baetica), Gaul, Syria and Egypt, and was also given the power to declare wars and conclude treaties.
With the exception of these powers, which had precedents in the era of the late Republic, when such emergency powers were given by vote in the Senate to Pompey and Caesar, the government of the republic was restored. Free elections were resumed; the magistrates, under the direction of the senate, performed their usual functions; the proconsuls, who received power over the provinces for a period of one year, were no longer subordinate to Augustus. On coins Octavian was designated as libertatis populi Romani vindex (defender of the freedom of the Roman people). At the same time, he retained control over all the legions, with the exception of a few - those commanded by the proconsuls of Illyria, Macedonia and Africa.
Augustus spent the next three years (27-25 BC) in his western provinces, where he finally managed to subjugate the restless tribes of Northwestern Spain, Asturias and Cantabria. Moreover, every year Octavian nominated himself for the consulate and, naturally, was elected to this position. Such a long stay as consul was not provided for by the regulations of 27 and therefore began to cause growing discontent.
On the one hand, the nobility had their own complaints due to the fact that the chances of obtaining a consulate had dropped by half. On the other hand, everyone realized that such a long stay of one person in the highest government position was contrary to the law and spirit of the republic. Discontent reached its climax in 23, when Aulus Terentius Varus Murena, second consul and hitherto loyal ally of Augustus, plotted to assassinate him.
Octavian realized that if he wanted to avoid the fate of Julius Caesar, he would have to make more serious concessions, and from July 1, 23 BC. Augustus refused the consulate, after which, with the exception of two years (5 and 2 BC), he never sought it again. Gaius Octavius remained proconsul of his provinces (his rule in them did not end until 17), however, wanting to show that his power would not last longer than necessary, Augustus abandoned the provinces in which peace had already been established - Narbonne Gaul (Southern Gaul) and Cyprus.
As compensation, Octavian received some privileges. It was established that, unlike other proconsuls, he does not lose imperium, i.e. command position in the troops, upon returning to Rome and receives majus imperium, or supreme powers in relation to other proconsuls, i.e. if necessary, has the right to disregard their decisions.
Augustus also received the power to convene the Senate and determine its activities. Finally, he received the lifelong power of plebeian tribune. The meaning of this power is not entirely clear. She gave Octavian certain rights; introduce legislative acts and veto orders of the Senate and officials, but Augustus used this right in rare cases, although it could be useful in any dangerous situations. It was rather a propaganda technique through which Octavian gained the support of the common people, who considered the tribunes to be defenders and champions of their rights.
In 22, Augustus went on a long trip to the eastern provinces and did not return to Rome until 19. If the republican opposition was satisfied with the new state of affairs, the people were dissatisfied with it and proposed that Octavian establish a dictatorship, accept an annual consulate with an indefinite extension, as well as a number of other extraordinary positions. In 22 and 20 the people insisted on his election as consul, but Augustus refused to accept this position. It seemed that the masses were truly frightened by the possibility that Octavian would finally retire to the provinces and abandon them to the mercy of the Senate. Concerned about the threat of revolts, which the authorities were not able to suppress, the Senate demanded that Augustus intervene in the situation and celebrate his return at the altar of Fortuna Redux (the altar of the goddess Fortuna, who patronizes those who return to their homeland).
Now the Republicans were ready to make concessions. According to the historian Dio Cassius, the title "imperium" was given to Augustus for life. The reliability of this fact is doubtful, but what is certain is that from then on Octavian had executive powers in the territory of Rome and Italy at the consul level. The legality of his position was now finally approved and was not subject to any further changes.
Augustus was unanimously elected as pontifex maximus in 12, after the death of Lepidus, who had previously held the position. And in 2 BC. he was hailed as pater patriae (father of the fatherland), but all these titles were only manifestations of honor. He was reinstated as provincial governor at intervals of five and ten years until his death in 14 AD.
The most famous sculptural image of Octavian Augustus. Also, a portrait of the “ideal” Roman emperor
Features of the reign of Octavian Augustus
Much debate arose over whether Augustus really intended to restore the republican system or whether he wanted to create a system of dual power, a diarchy in which he would divide the administration of the empire between himself and the Senate, or whether Gaius Octavius simply maintained the appearance of a republic, indulging the sentiments of the upper class. Some of his statements indicate that at first he may have hoped to restore order in the empire, and then retire, handing over the reins of government to the Senate. However, such hopes, if he had ever cherished them, soon faded.
Augustus certainly made efforts to intensify the activities of the magistrates and the senate in governing the country and promoting reforms of the republican administrative system. For example, he transferred some functions that the aediles had previously neglected to the newly created colleges of persons authorized by the Senate, such as curators aquarium (responsible for water supply). In relation to the aediles, responsible for the activities of fire brigades and the supply of grain to Rome, this was the last of the innovations that streamlined their functions, which Augustus personally carried out. At the same time, he tried to interfere as little as possible in lawmaking.
Octavian kept the electoral system free, reserving the right to recommend to the people the election of certain candidates whom he favored. However, at the end of his life, this commendatio turned into a strict right to nominate a limited number of candidates for election without competition. Augustus made great efforts to get the Senate to revise the rotational system of membership, and although on two occasions (in 18 and 11 BC) he had to act in a strong-willed manner, in 4 AD. he finally succeeded in achieving his original goal. At the same time, he held real power firmly in his hands and under no circumstances weakened his personal control over the army.
After 19, Augustus had legal prerogatives that allowed him to dictate his will in cases of almost any unforeseen circumstances. Outside his province, he preferred to use his power minimally and influence through his personal moral authority (auctoritas).
Thus, although Octavian introduced some laws as a plebeian tribune, the main lawmaking in the late period of his reign was carried out by the consuls who were under his influence. The consuls also ensured the activities of the Senate, although it was already determined in a narrow circle of people with Augustus at its head. Bearing the title of majus imperium, he, however, had much greater capabilities than just directing the actions of the consuls. Of all his official titles, Octavian ignored imperium and preferred tribuncia potestas. He also preferred to be known as princeps, the senior civil servant of the republic.
Perhaps the most important evidence that Augustus never seriously considered restoring the republic comes from the fact that he was constantly preoccupied with a potential successor. Octavian was criticized for his desire to find one among his family members, but serious political considerations also served as the basis for this choice, in addition to personal feelings. The legions were loyal to the Caesar family, as demonstrated early in Augustus' career, and the stability of the regime depended largely on their loyalty.
Fate did not give Octavian sons. His marriage to Scribonia, in 40 BC, brought only a daughter, Julia, born in 39 BC. On her birthday, divorcing Scribonia, Augustus in 38 married Livia Drusilla, to with whom he fell passionately in love and whose husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero, forced him to divorce her. The marriage turned out to be happy and long (Livia survived Augustus), but childless, Octavian had only one close male relative - Marcus Claudius Marcellus, the son of his sister Octavia. Livia had her own children from her first marriage, the future emperor Tiberius and Nero Claudius Drusus, who were settled in the house of Augustus.
The emperor's first choice fell on Marcellus. He married him to Julia and gave him a corresponding promotion. This apparently led to friction with his loyal comrade Agrippa, who, pacified, left the stage in 23 and became a colleague of Augustus in the ranks of proconsuls, receiving the East under his control.
Marcellus died the following year, and Julia promptly married Agrippa. This marriage brought two sons, Guy Caesar(born 20), whom Augustus declared as his adopted son, and Lucius Caesar(born 17). In 18, Agrippa's proconsular powers, together with those of Augustus, were extended for another five years, and for the same period he shared his power as tribune with Augustus.
The plan was that in the event of Octavian's premature death (his health was always poor), Agrippa would remain in power and rightfully transfer it to his sons, who by blood and succession were from the line of the Caesars. In 13, Agrippa's powers were again extended for five years, but he died the next year.
Expansion of the Empire under Octavian Augustus
Augustus transferred the role of Agrippa to Livia's eldest son Tiberius, to whom he married Julia and forced Tiberius to divorce his beloved wife. In 6 BC. Tiberius received the powers of tribune for five years, but almost immediately retired to Rhodes and refused all participation in the government.
The reason for the quarrel became obvious the following year, when Agrippa's son, Gaius Caesar, fifteen years old, was elected consul with a five-year delay in taking office and declared members of the equestrian order princeps juventutis (head of the younger generation); in 2 BC Lucius Caesar was awarded the same honors.
Tiberius, who had been serving full-time in Pannonia and Germany as Augustus's legate, had no intention of playing a secondary role under the two youths. Octavian was consistent in his policy, appointing in 1 BC. Guy Caesar to a proconsular position, entrusting him with solving the problems of Parthia and Armenia. However, he again had to be disappointed in his hopes. Lucius died in 2 AD, and Gaius in 4 AD. Augustus had to turn again to Tiberius, whom he declared to be his adopted son and introduced him to joint government for ten years with the powers of proconsul and tribune. These powers were renewed and extended in 14 AD. shortly before the death of Augustus.
Although Octavian himself was not a great general, he greatly expanded the boundaries of the empire through a long series of wars, some of which he fought himself, but most of which were fought by Agrippa, Tiberius, Drusus and other competent military leaders. Augustus was not attracted by the temptation of eastern conquest, and he resisted public opinion, which supported the idea of \u200b\u200bretribution against Parthia. In 20 BC.
Octavian, in a calculated demonstration of his military power, forced the Parthian king to hand over the standards and prisoners captured from Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53, and to recognize the Roman protege on the Armenian throne. Having thus restored the authority of Rome and satisfied the pride of the Romans, Augustus did not take further action until 4 AD, when Gaius Caesar, with a new show of force, forced the Parthians to tacitly agree that Octavian had once again determined who should become king of Armenia.
Augustus confirmed the rights of all the dependent rulers whom Antony had installed in the East, especially Polemus of Pontus, Amyntas of Galatia, Archelaus of Cappadocia and Herod of Judea. However, Galatia was annexed and annexed to the provinces of Augustus after the murder of Amyntas in 25. An ill-conceived attempt to annex Arabia Felix (Yemen) in 26 ended in failure.
The army and military reforms of Octavian Augustus
In Europe, in addition to pacifying Spain, Octavian's efforts were aimed at sufficiently strengthening the northern border; the northern reaches of Italy remained very vulnerable. The first stage was the conquest of the Alpine regions, Raetia and Noricum up to the Danube, which were carried out by Tiberius and Drusus (16-14 BC).
In the next five years (13-9 BC), Agrippa and then his successor Tiberius subjugated Pannonia, while Drusus, moving east of the Rhine into Germany, reached the Elbe. After the death of Drusus in 9 BC. Tiberius took upon himself his military task. Information about the years of Tiberius's resignation (4-6 AD) is very scanty, but it is known that the German campaign continued, and Moesia was supposedly conquered during this period.
On Tiberius's return, a grand strategic plan was developed to conquer the Marcomannic kingdom in Bohemia and establish a shorter border from the Elbe to the Great Bend of the Danube. A simultaneous attack from two sides against Maroboda, the Marcomanni king, began in 6 AD, when Pannonia rebelled. The rebels resisted for three years, bringing the empire's resources to a significant depletion. It was nearly complete when Arminius, king of the Cherusci, lured Quintilius Varus, commander of the Roman troops in Germany, with three legions and completely destroyed them in the Teutoburg Forest (9 AD).
Crushed by a series of defeats, Augustus abandoned his ambitious plans; Marobod remained undefeated, and the legions retreated across the Rhine. Despite this setback, Augustus' achievements were enormous. He advanced the northern borders to the Danube and annexed four provinces to the empire - Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia and Moesia. Since these provinces, together with Illyria, were added to the areas of his rule, his weight in the government of the empire increased significantly. In addition, military units were withdrawn from Macedonia, and thus only one legion, subordinate to the proconsul of Africa, remained outside his command.
Augustus eventually succeeded in creating the stability the empire had long needed. After the Battle of Actium, he disbanded most of the huge armies he and Antony had formed. Octavian seemed to settle for 28 legions (reduced to 25 after the defeat of Varus), which became permanent military units, many of which remained in existence for centuries.
From 30 BC Augustus established conscription from the age of sixteen, and in 6 AD. - from the age of twenty. The main financial problem, which the Senate never faced during the republic, was the provision of land plots and bonuses to demobilized veterans. From 30 BC up to 6 AD Augustus himself bought the required lands or paid benefits at his own expense. He then created a special military treasury and, despite Senate opposition, imposed a new tax on Roman citizens to replenish it.
Auxiliary units in the provinces, previously irregularly recruited, were also reorganized and transferred to a permanent basis. Two permanent fleets were also created, based in Ravenna and Misenum. Another innovation in the military was the reorganization of the traditional bodyguard units (cohors praetoria - praetorian cohorts) of the proconsuls into a large and permanent unit of nine cohorts (nine thousand warriors) stationed around Rome. Three more urban cohorts located in Rome itself were closely associated with them.
Roman coin depicting Emperor Octavian Augustus
Domestic policy of Octavian Augustus
To carry out various tasks, Augustus created to assist himself an administrative machine, rudimentary in nature, designed for specific cases and without clear internal coordination.
Octavian appointed senators from the consular or praetorian circle as his authorized (legati Augusti - legates of Augustus) to govern their provinces and command their legions (with the exception of those stationed in Egypt).
He also placed a senior senator in consular rank as city prefect to maintain order in Rome by city cohorts; for the first time such a temporary appointment followed during Augustus' stay in Spain in 26 BC, and then, being renewed during his stay in Gaul in 16-13. BC, acquired a permanent status until the end of his reign.
To command auxiliary units and govern small provinces, Octavian usually used prefects of equestrian rank; such an important province as Egypt, which was dangerous to entrust to a senator, was also, as an exception, governed by a prefect of equestrians. Augustus used horsemen to command newly organized fire brigades, to secure grain supplies to Rome, and as commanders of the Praetorian Guard. He gave his household servants, slaves and freedmen, the status of a central secretariat and financial authority.
To control his financial interests in the provinces, Octavian used private agents (procuratores - procurators), who were in charge of his private property, but also collected income and made payments to military units; The principle procurators were usually people from the equestrian class, but some of them, as well as all their subordinates, came from among the freedmen and slaves of Augustus.
Under Octavian's rule, the provinces generated great income. First, the provinces reaped the benefits of peace that followed the civil wars and related misfortunes.
Secondly, Augustus abolished the previously existing system of collecting taxes in the provinces and with it put an end to extortion by publicani (publicans - tax farmers of state revenues), establishing a fixed level of taxes, depending on the qualifications of population and property and collected by city authorities. In his part of the empire, he selected the best people to govern and kept them under constant control. Sometimes, using the rights of majus imperium, Augustus suppressed abuses in other provinces and simplified the procedure by which their inhabitants could demand satisfaction from rulers who were engaged in extortion.
Augustus tried to reform the religious, moral and social life of the Roman people. He restored abandoned temples, obsolete rituals, priestly activities, and generally made efforts to revive old religious traditions imbued with a patriotic spirit. In the moral sphere, Octavian tried to restore the sacred attitude to marriage and stimulate fertility, spending about 18 BC with these goals. two laws - the lex Julia de adulteris, which recognized adultery as a crime, and the lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus, which provided for the punishment of unmarried and childless citizens and the encouragement of parents of large families.
In 17 BC. The celebration of the Secular Games announced the advent of a new, better era. Later, through two laws. Augustus streamlined and limited the emancipation of slaves in an attempt to curb the spread of false citizenship practiced among freedmen.
Octavian showed particular caution in one aspect of religious life. It is known that some of Caesar's innovations in this area undermined his popularity more than his acceptance of cult honors from Roman citizens. Augustus insisted on recognizing the “divinity” of his adoptive father and built a magnificent temple in his honor, but he himself, to the best of his ability, forbade the Romans to honor themselves as a god.
He was careful even with regard to the provinces. In the eastern regions there was a long tradition of worshiping the proconsuls, but Augustus allowed the construction of temples there to none other than “Rome and Augustus.” At the same time, he apparently came to recognize the importance of his cult as an expression of loyalty to the empire and deliberately introduced it into the more backward, recently conquered provinces of the West, erecting it in 12 BC. altar at Lugdunum (Lyon), where the Gallic communities worshiped Rome and Augustus, later building a similar altar for the Germans in the oppidum Ubiorum (Colony).
During the era of Octavian Augustus, Roman literature and art experienced their dawn, and Augustus himself made efforts to develop them. He was a great builder and could rightly be proud of the fact that he took Rome as clay and left it as marble.
The temples, forum and public buildings erected under Augustus served as models for many architects and sculptors. Octavian and Gaius Maecenas, who remained his friend until the end of his life, patronized the poets and inspired them to devote their talents to chanting the ideas of the new era. Virgil celebrated the divine origin of Rome (and its current ruler), Horace celebrated the transformations in religious and moral life, and even Ovid praised the revival of religion in his work Fasti.
Personality of Octavian Augustus
In his youth, the emperor was sometimes unprincipled and cruel, and the desire for power seemed to be his main passion, but having gained power, Octavian softened and developed the qualities of an exemplary statesman.
He got rid of the shortcomings of his youth and rested among universal respect and love. Augustus was not a genius like his adoptive father Julius Caesar, and often suffered from comparisons with him, but he had brilliant talents in politics and government.
His administrative reforms, especially the reorganization of the army, were well thought out and skillfully implemented, standing the test of time. In addition, Octavian was amazingly sensitive to public opinion and knew how to manipulate it.
He managed to reconcile all classes with himself, even the remnants of the highest nobility. He successfully indulged the republican sentiments of the educated sections of society and united them in support of the new government system. The main proof of the significance of his works can be seen in the fact that the state system he created lasted without much change for three centuries.
Frederick II of Hohenstaufen
Octavian Augustus– Roman Emperor from 63 BC to 14 AD Guy Octavius was his name at birth. The name Augustus was given to him as an honorific. In England, it is customary to call him Octavian, in order to avoid confusion in the chronology of subsequent emperors of Ancient Rome, because. they also bore the title Augustus. Came from a respected family. His father was Gaius Octavius (died 58 BC), the first of his family to become a senator. From the age of 61, as a praetor, he successfully ruled Macedonia. Mother, Atiya, was the daughter of Julia, the sister of himself. Subsequently, this branch of kinship determined the future of Octavius, because Caesar himself pinned his hopes on him, trying to take him with him even in military campaigns. Julius Caesar had no legal heir, and in his will he designated Octavius as his adopted son and sole heir to three-quarters of his property.
In 44 BC. The murder of Caesar occurred, at that time Octavius, being in Italy, learned that he had become the son and legal heir of the great ruler and commander. The young man decided to achieve a dangerous inheritance, not looking at the weakness of his positions in the political circles of Rome. Having behind him only the will of the murdered emperor, enemies in the face of the anti-Caesarian coalition and the refusal of Mark Antony, the recognized leader of the Caesarians, Octavius began a political struggle for power. Initial help came to the young Caesar (Octavian wisely appropriated the name of his predecessor after acknowledging paternity) from Cicero. Moreover, Cicero himself considered it just a means in the struggle for power with Anthony. An opportunity presented itself shortly after the conflict between Mark Antony and the Senate. With Cicero's influence on the Senate, Octavian himself was proclaimed a senator and gathered troops from 3 thousand veterans of his adoptive father and 2 legions of Anthony, who joined his ranks. In 43, at Mantua, Mark Antony was defeated and agreed to a peace agreement, becoming an ally of Octavius. Soon the patrician of the vast domains of Galia, Leupidus, joined them. Together, in 38, they destroyed the troops of Gaius Cassius and Junius Brutus, the murderers of Gaius Julius Caesar. Thus, a triumvirate was established in the empire. But during the first five years of the triumvirate's reign in 37, Leupides was deposed. The Empire was divided into two camps: the West, under the rule of Octavian, and the East, ruled by Mark Antony.
It became obvious that a new crisis was brewing. And it occurred during the second five-year election of the triumvirate. By that time, Antony's position had sharply weakened due to this rapprochement and subsequent marriage with Cleopatra (the Egyptian queen) and unsuccessful military campaigns. In 32, war was declared on Cleopatra, and Antony was forced to do the same against Octavian. The decisive battle took place at Actium on September 2, 31, where the united forces of the Egyptian queen and Mark Antony were completely defeated, and already on August 1, 30, he victoriously entered Egyptian soil in Alexandria. Mark Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide and Augustus Octavian had no more political competitors for absolute power. He entered Rome in triumph and was elected consul of the empire. Since then, he has been elected to this position every year and naturally won. From the age of 27, he generously reserved the right to be elected only once every 2 years, for which he received the honorary name of Augustus from the Senate. But, as it turned out, he only approached the top of Olympus even more subtly. In the mid-20s, Octavius left for his provinces, completely withdrawing from power. And the Roman people began to riot due to dissatisfaction with the position of the Senate on this issue. And in 22 years before. AD His political triumph was accomplished - under the pressure of ever-increasing discontent, the Senate transferred all power into the hands of Octavian and he was proclaimed emperor. Gaius Augustus Octavius forever inscribed his name in history as one of the greatest rulers of Rome.
Views: 257Given a name at birth Guy Octavius Furin(lat. Gaius Octavius Thurinus). Came from a wealthy, humble family, founder of the dynasty Yuliev-Klavdiev, founder of the Roman Empire. Octavian Augustus- great-nephew Caesar .
Already in 27 - 23 BC. e. Octavian single-handedly ruled the Roman state, avoiding the establishment of an open monarchy. Expanded the borders of the Roman state.
Governing body Octaviana was marked by the development of the economy, the development of the provinces and military reform, a decrease in the influence of the Senate on Roman politics and the emergence of the cult of the emperor. Left power to his stepson Tiberius .
Octavian Augustus
(Gaius Octavius Furin, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian)
September 23, 63 BC e. - August 19, 14 AD e.
lat. Octavianus Augustus, lat. Gaius Octavius Thurinus, Gaius Iulius Caesar Octavianus
1st Roman Emperor |
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January 16, 27 BC e. - August 19, 14 AD e. |
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| Predecessor | — |
| Successor | Tiberius |
Tribune of the Roman Empire |
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23 BC e. - 14 AD e. |
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Pater patriae(father of the fatherland) |
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2 BC e. |
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| Place of Birth | Rome, Roman Republic |
| A place of death | Nola, Naples, Campania, Roman Republic |
| Religion | — |
| Burial place | Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome |
| Father | Guy Octavius |
| Mother | Atia Balba Caesonia |
| Genus | Julio-Claudius |
| Wife | 1. Claudia Pulchra |
| 2. Scribonia On either | |
| 3. Livia Drusilla | |
| Children | Yulia Elder(from Scribonia) |
Octavian Augustus
Mausoleum of Augustus
A perfect reconstruction of the original architecture of the Mausoleum of Augustus by Luigi Canina
He came from a wealthy plebeian family that belonged to the equestrian class.
From the end of 61 to 59. BC e. father Octaviana was governor of the province of Macedonia, but it is not known whether his wife and children went with him. In 59 or 58 BC. e. Guy -the eldest died without reaching the consulate - the highest position of the Roman Republic. Thanks to kinship with two triumvirs at once Atiya managed to find a worthy husband, despite having three children with her. Stepfather Octaviana became Lucius Marcius Philip (c. 102 BC - after 43 BC), consul of 56 BC. e.
First few years of life Octavian probably spent time in Velitra, but after the death of his father he was sent to be raised by his maternal grandmother, Julia (to my sister Guy Julius Caesar ). In 51 BC. e. she died and young Octavian delivered the eulogy at the funeral. Staying in the house Atii And Julia influenced the child’s interest in politics and introduced him to activities Caesar .
In Rome Octavian received a good education; among his teachers there are famous slave-teachers Spheres , philosophers Arius from Alexandria and Athenodorus the Canaanite from Tarsus, Greek rhetorician Apollodorus and Latin rhetorician Marcus Epidius (among the latter's other students were Mark Antony And Virgil ). Dio Cassius talks about passing Octavian special military training and special study of politics, but there is no other evidence of this. Already in childhood he met Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and other peers who in the future helped him manage the empire.
By the beginning of the civil war 49 - 45. BC e. Octavian was still a child, and his initiation took place in October 48 or 47 BC. e. In 47 BC. e. under the patronage Caesar Octavian took the first two positions - an honorable place in the college of pontiffs, vacated after death Lucia Domitia Ahenobarbus , and the ceremonial position of city prefect (praefectus urbi), when he formally ruled Rome during the Latin Festival. Although August couldn't go on an African expedition Caesar , the commander invited him to take part in the triumphal celebrations of 46 BC. e. Wherein Caesar assigned him to a place of honor - right behind his chariot, and even awarded him along with the real participants in the campaign. Since then Octavian increasingly appeared with the dictator at public events, which is why many Romans began to seek his favor and ask him to intercede on their cases before Caesar . On his instructions, in the summer of 46 BC. e. Octavian He was engaged in organizing theatrical productions, although his diligence was overshadowed by an attack of an unknown illness. He expected to take part in the second Spanish campaign Caesar , but was late for the decisive Battle of Munda for unclear reasons.
In 45 BC. e. tribune Lucius Cassius executing an order Caesar , proposed a law to transfer a number of plebeian families to the thinned class of patricians, and the Octavian family was awarded this honor. In September of the same year Caesar left a will, according to which Octavian received most of the inheritance on the condition that he agrees to go through the adoption procedure. The contents of the will and the name of the main heir, however, remained unknown until the assassination of the dictator in March 44 BC. e. Already in ancient times, there were different opinions about how serious the plans were Caesar in a relationship Octaviana, and whether the latter was aware of the dictator’s intentions.
Although the legal traditions of the Roman Republic did not provide for the transfer of power by inheritance, and the often discussed possible vesting Caesar the power of the king (rex) would still require the election of a new ruler, Octavian as the official heir, he was subsequently able to dispose of the wealth looted in Gaul, as well as enjoy the support of numerous soldiers who were personally loyal to Caesar .
The problem of inheritance was acute because Caesar there were no sons born in legal marriage. The dictator's only daughter Julia , died during childbirth along with the child from Gnaeus Pompey . The three people who were most closely related to the dictator were: Lucius Pinarius , Quintus Pedius And Guy Octavius(August). Had some reason to hope for an inheritance and Mark Antony , who was both a relative of the dictator (though very distant) and his close ally. Caesarion , son Cleopatra , supposedly was the son of a dictator, however Caesar did not officially recognize him and did not mention him in his will.
In winter 45-44. BC e. Octavian on behalf of Caesar went to Apollonia (near the modern city of Fier in Albania). There he completed his education and prepared for the war planned by the dictator (according to different versions, the enemy was supposed to be either Parthia or Dacia). Ancient authors also mention that Caesar was preparing to appoint Octaviana chief of the cavalry, that is, to the responsible post of deputy dictator, instead of Stamp Emilia Lepida . Some historians doubt the credibility of this appointment, which never took place due to the assassination of Caesar on March 15, 44 BC. e.
When news of the murder came to Apollonia Caesar , the legionnaires promised to protect Octaviana from a possible assassination attempt by the conspirators. The young man was even offered to lead the legions stationed in the Balkans and lead them to Rome to avenge the murder Caesar (the latter story may have been invented by later historians). Friends who stayed in Apollonia Octaviana supported the expedition to Italy, but his parents dissuaded him in letters from escalating tensions. Moreover, later the stepfather even urged the young man to renounce the inheritance Caesar for your own safety. In the first days after the murder Caesar many feared that the conspirators would begin to kill the dictator’s relatives. Nevertheless, Octavian crossed to Italy, but without troops. Apparently, the refusal to use the army was caused by the lack of reliable information about what was happening in Rome. After the veterans of the dictator’s army in Italy joyfully met the heir (by this time everyone had learned about the dictator’s will), Octavian announced his intention to accept the inheritance, after which his name became “ Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian" On the way to Rome Octavian stayed in Campania, where he consulted with experienced politicians - first of all, with Cicero . The details of their conversation are unknown, but the great orator wrote in one of his letters that Octavian completely devoted to him. As a rule, it is assumed that Cicero Even then I decided to use an inexperienced Octaviana in the fight against his old enemy Mark Antony . In May he arrived in Rome.
In the summer of 44 BC. e. Octavian consistently strengthened his authority in the capital. To publicly demonstrate his grief, he grew a beard and did not shave it as a sign of mourning for the murdered dictator. In July he became the manager of the games in honor of victories Caesar , during which a very bright comet appeared in the sky. Some Romans believed that a comet was a harbinger of bad luck, but Octavian, apparently, managed to convince them that this was the soul of the deified Caesar . Finally, he distributed to each Roman 300 sesterces, promised by the dictator in his will. He was forced to sell the family property to fulfill this clause of the will, since Anthony refused to transfer money from his personal treasury Caesar to the legal heir. Bye Octavian pursued a successful policy to increase his popularity, Anthony , who did not take the young heir seriously, was losing his authority among ordinary Caesarians - both among the capital's plebs and among veterans. This was due to inconsistency in the prosecution of the conspirators, the brutal suppression of the riots of the townspeople and the constant promulgation of laws that the dictator supposedly intended. in autumn Mark quarreled with many senators and, above all, with Cicero .
Although Octavian and was popular among the urban plebs, active duty army and many veterans Caesar mostly supported Antonia - an experienced commander and comrade-in-arms of the dictator. To defend your interests Octavian went to southern Italy and began to gather an army, attracting to his side the veterans and legionnaires stationed there who received land with promises of speedy reprisals against the murderers Caesar and money. Soon two legions that had previously recognized power came over to his side. Antonia . Mark offered the hesitant soldiers 100 denarii (400 sesterces), but the legionnaires ridiculed him: Octavian offered them five times more. Only by organizing a decimation, during which 300 instigators of the riots were executed, and by increasing the promised payment, Anthony held the remaining soldiers. Having assembled a 10,000-strong personal army, Octavian marched on Rome and occupied the Forum on November 10. There he made a speech in which he called for a war with Anthony - violator of laws and offender of the legal heir Caesar . However, his speech ended in an unexpected way: many soldiers who were ready to defend Octaviana from possible assassinations and fight with Brutus And Cassius under his rule, they did not want to fight with the loyal Caesarian Anthony . They also remembered the young man’s lack of legal authority. Octaviana. The Senate remained indifferent to his proposal. Although many soldiers remained with Octavian, he left Rome and fortified himself in Arretia (modern Arezzo).
After leaving Octaviana, November 24, 44 BC. e., Anthony entered Rome with his troops. He redistributed a number of key provinces in favor of the Caesarians and his brother Guy ; attempt to announce Octaviana enemy of the state was not successful. After that Anthony moved to Cisalpine Gaul and besieged the previously appointed Decima Brutus in Mutina (modern Modena). Meanwhile, the Senate began to prepare for war with Anthony who showed open disobedience. January 7, 43 BC e. Cicero ensured that Octavian received the powers of propraetor, became a senator ahead of schedule (a seat in the Senate was usually guaranteed by the execution of the quaestor's magistracy) and was able to be elected to all positions ten years ahead of schedule. The Senate also insisted on the annulment of a number of orders Antonia , including his appointment as governor of Cisalpine Gaul. After this, both consuls - Guy Vibius Pansa And Aulus Hirtius - gathered an army and went to Mutina to lift the siege. In exchange for legal authority Octavian agreed to transfer to the consuls the most combat-ready troops at his disposal, and soon marched to Mutina. Apparently, many soldiers went to war with little enthusiasm, still popular among the Caesarians. Anthony which forced Octaviana take their opinion into account.
In April the troops Pans got into a setup Anthony an ambush near the Gallic Forum (modern Castelfranco Emilia). Pansa was defeated and died, but when Anthony was already preparing to celebrate the victory, troops arrived on the battlefield Hirtius , who pushed the enemy back to the walls of Mutina, where troops remained to continue the siege. In a few days Hirtius And Octavian attacked Antonia near Mutina to finally lift the siege from this city. They forced Antonia flee across the Alps to Narbonese Gaul, but during the battle Hirtius He was mortally wounded and died soon after. The deaths of both consuls were suspicious, and in ancient times their deaths were sometimes blamed on Octaviana. Degree of participation Octaviana in battles is unclear: authors from the Imperial era reported that he fought in the front ranks and even picked up the legionary banner in the form of an eagle from the hands of a wounded aquilifer (standard bearer). Mark Antony he claimed that Octavian shamefully fled from the battlefield. After the battle Octavian ceased to be useful for the Senate: by this time those close to the Senate Mark Brutus And Gaius Cassius gathered large troops in Greece, and the victory over Anthony was already considered a matter of the next few days. As a result, the Senate demanded Octaviana hand over Decimus Brutus consular troops, which he accepted after the death of the consuls without legal grounds. In addition, the Senate refused to pay previously promised rewards to all soldiers. Octaviana. Dissatisfied with the actions of the Senate, Octavian refused to help Decimus Brutus in pursuit Antonia , and he had to act only with his soldiers, exhausted by the siege, and with the consular troops. In addition, two legions, which Octavian should have conveyed Brutus , refused to fight under the leadership of the former conspirator and remained with Octavian.
After the victory at the Battle of Mutina Octavian declared his intention to become consul-suffect: custom required new elections after the death of the consuls. The second suffix he saw Cicero : by the proposal Octaviana, « Cicero will manage government affairs as senior and more experienced, Caesar[August] will be content with one title, convenient for laying down his arms.” The Senate rejected the claims Octaviana on completely legal grounds: Octavian was very young for the consulate, even taking into account the previously granted reduction in the required age for master's studies by 10 years. However, for his actions Octavian received the honorary title of emperor, which in the Republican era denoted a victorious commander and allowed him to claim triumph. However, the Senate denied him the right to the triumph itself, although this opportunity was provided Decimus Brutus .
Bye Decimus Brutus crossed the Alps, Anthony managed to win over to his side the troops of the governors of all the western provinces - the former Caesarians Stamp Emilia Lepida , Gaia Asinius Polliona And Lucia Munazia Planca . Anthony declared his intention to avenge the death Caesar , after which before Octavian the problem of choosing a side arose. Soldiers Octaviana, among whom were many veterans of the dictator’s army, persuaded their commander to side Antonia . They also vowed never to fight against other Caesarians again. In addition, the soldiers were extremely concerned about the ongoing revision of laws Antonia , among which were promises of cash rewards and distribution of land for veterans Caesar . The rapprochement of the Octaviana With Anthony began on the basis of general hatred of Republicans and dissatisfaction with the actions of the Senate. To demonstrate readiness to negotiate Octavian began to release captured soldiers and centurions Antonia . In addition, he openly sabotaged the orders of the Senate and missed Publius Ventidius Bassa with reinforcements for Antonia , recruited in southern and central Italy.
After gathering a large army Anthony had greater power and influence than Octavian, which made the latter a junior partner in any union created. Apparently, precisely for negotiating with Anthony equally Octavian continued to try to take the position of consul. The senators refused to meet him halfway. Moreover, they tried to split the army Octaviana, making generous promises to the most combat-ready legions; ambassadors Octaviana, in turn, sought the fulfillment of previously assumed obligations in Rome and the right to elect their commander as consul.
The Senate still hoped for a speedy arrival in Italy Brutus And Cassia , and therefore they refused delegations Octaviana. However, located in Macedonia Mark Brutus was dissatisfied with the young man's negotiations Caesar And Cicero (there were even rumors in his circle about their election as consuls) and refused his mentor, who urged him to quickly arrive in Italy with his army. Brutus , apparently, did not want to start a new civil war, which is why he saved his life Guy Anthony - to the brother of the commander, captured in Macedonia.
Death Decima Brutus and neutrality Mark of Brutus left Italy with only minor forces loyal to the Senate. After the failure of the next negotiations in August (sextiles) Octavian Augustus, allegedly fulfilling the soldiers' demands, began a campaign against Rome. The civil war, like six years ago, began with the crossing of the Rubicon, but this time the commander led not one, but eight legions into battle. When his troops were already on the way, the Senate agreed to grant Octavian the right to be elected consul without resigning, but Octavian continued the march. Three legions located near Rome immediately went over to his side, which brought the total number of the army Octaviana up to 11 legions, or about 50 thousand soldiers. During the hike Guy feared for the safety of his mother and sister who remained in Rome, but they took refuge with the Vestal priestesses, who enjoyed immunity.
After the troops entered the capital without a fight, Guy seized the state treasury to pay money to his soldiers and secured the calling of elections. August 19 (sextile) Octavian Augustus elected consul along with his uncle Quintus Pedius (the more likely candidates for second place were considered Cicero or father of the bride Octavian Augustus Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus ). Apparently there were no other candidates for consul. In a new position Octavian completed his adoption first Caesar , convening the curiat comitia. Soon Quintus Pedius passed a law on trial in absentia of murderers Caesar (law Pedia ), after which a trial was held in one day and a guilty verdict was pronounced. The property of the escaped convicts was confiscated, and their powers were revoked. Soon the Senate, under pressure from the consuls, repealed all laws directed against Antonia And Lepida , after which peace negotiations began with them.
In October 43 BC. e. Octavian, Anthony And Lepidus met on a small island in the river near Bononia (modern Bologna). At this meeting, an agreement was reached on the creation of a second triumvirate - an alliance of three politicians with unlimited powers. Unlike the first triumvirate Caesar , Pompey And Crassus , the new union was formalized and limited to a five-year term. At the same time, the triumvirs did not agree on any serious reforms, and the triumvirate was officially created “to put the republic in order” (rei publicae constituendae). The People's Assembly approved the bill establishing the triumvirate (law Titia ) November 27, 43 BC. e., and before taking office Octavian Augustus resigned as consul. They were proclaimed triumvirs with supreme powers for the period from November 27, 43 to December 31, 38.
The triumvirs agreed on the distribution of the highest magistrates among their supporters for the following years and divided among themselves all the western provinces. Octavian Augustus received the least benefit from this division, since the provinces transferred to him - Africa, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica - were partially occupied by the Republicans. The triumvirate was sealed by marriage Augusta on Claudia , stepdaughter of the most powerful triumvir Antonia . Two years later the marriage was dissolved.
Although Octavian Having taken the post of consul, he did not persecute his opponents; at a meeting in Bononia, the triumvirs agreed to organize proscriptions - mass executions of their opponents according to pre-agreed lists. The initiator of the proscriptions is unknown, and the details of the negotiations on them are unclear due to the secret nature of the discussion and the desire of the supporters Octavian Augustus downplay his guilt for the proscriptions. In total, the final list of those condemned to death included approximately 300 senators and about 2 thousand horsemen, and the first name was Cicero .
The property of those who were proscribed was, as a rule, sold at auction in order to replenish the treasury. However, soldiers and other executors of proscriptions robbed unattended houses, and the conditions of the auctions and the atmosphere of terror against the rich scared off many potential buyers. As a result, the sale of the property of the proscribed did not cover the costs of the impending war with the Republicans, although many of the triumvirs' comrades became unusually rich. To cover expenses, the triumvirate imposed new taxes, arranged a forced loan, obliged senators to recruit slaves for the fleet, and also confiscated the property of many wealthy citizens. A separate tax was imposed on the property of rich women, but the Romans achieved the abolition or significant reduction of this tax
Leaving Lepida in Italy with part of the troops, Anthony And Octavian Augustus successfully crossed the Adriatic Sea, bypassing superior enemy naval forces. In total, the triumvirate troops in Macedonia numbered about 100 thousand infantry and 13 thousand horsemen, the Republicans (their self-name - liberators, liberatores) had about 70 thousand infantry, but had an advantage in cavalry (about 20 thousand) and at sea. In September Anthony arrived at the plain near the city of Philippi, where the Republicans had already fortified themselves. Octavian was delayed for several days due to illness.
The triumvirs' camps were located on a marshy plain, while the Republicans had previously built their camps on the hills, which made their position more advantageous. The Republicans hoped to avoid a general battle, hoping that their advantage at sea and good supplies would allow them to weaken the triumvirs. However, soon a battle broke out between the troops on the left flank of the Republicans Antonia And Cassia . Mark acted successfully and captured the enemy camp, but at the same time Brutus attacked the troops Octaviana and captured his camp. After that Brutus And Anthony returned to their original positions, and Cassius ignorant of success Brutus , committed suicide. A few weeks later, when the supply situation in the triumvir camp became critical, Brutus succumbed to the persuasion of his comrades and led his troops to the decisive battle. Thanks to skillful actions Antonia The triumvirate army won the battle. Role Octaviana in both battles was minimal: the superstitious commander missed the first battle due to a bad dream of his doctor and hid in the swamps for three days, and the second battle due to illness.
Octavian beheaded the body Brutus and sent the head to Rome to throw it at the feet of the statue Caesar , but the ship carrying the head Brutus , crashed. The two winners redistributed the provinces: Mark retained Gaul, received Africa and, apparently, all the eastern provinces; Guy received the Spanish provinces, Numidia (New Africa), Sardinia and Corsica; Lepidus lost influence. The triumvirs also distributed responsibilities regarding the fulfillment of promises to the soldiers: Octavian should have given them land in Italy, and the task Antonia began the search for cash in the rich eastern provinces
After returning to Italy Octavian began to allocate land to serving soldiers, and plots were also distributed to surrendered soldiers Brutus And Cassia , so that they do not rebel and join the surviving republicans. The triumvirs had previously identified 18 cities whose lands should be confiscated, but mass expropriations had to be carried out Octavian. It soon became clear that these lands were not enough for numerous veterans, and Octavian was forced to begin confiscating land from other cities. Veterans were supposed to receive plots in Italy, where there had long been a shortage of free land, and the mass removal of colonies in the provinces had not yet become a generally accepted practice. Land was often taken from residents of settlements that had been hostile to the triumvirs in the past. As a rule, the smallest plots were left to the previous owners, as were many of the largest plots, and middle-class peasants and owners of small agricultural villas suffered the most. The size of allotments for veterans is unknown: the average area is estimated to range from very small allotments to plots of 50 yugeras (12.5 ha) for soldiers and 100 yugeras (25 ha) for centurions. It is extremely rare that the owners of land intended for division managed to achieve the preservation of the site: for example, the poet was lucky Virgil , for whom he stood up Gaius Asinius Pollio . Octavian paid money to the previous owners of the taken land, but even for these symbolic payments it was not always possible to get money. The situation was seriously complicated by the blockade of the Apennine Peninsula by the fleet Sextus Pompey , which gained a foothold in Sicily and did not allow ships with grain to enter Italy.
The discontent that arose as a result of the mass eviction of Italians and the naval blockade was taken advantage of Lucius Antony , Brother Mark Antony , and remained in Italy Fulvia , wife of this triumvir. Lucius blamed for what was happening Octaviana and promised that his brother, after returning from the East, would restore the republic. His campaigning was successful not only with the Italians, but also with some senators. Soldiers and military leaders interested in continuing land distributions tried to reconcile Octaviana With Lucius Antony , but soon Italian uprisings began in central Italy. It is unclear whether he acted Lucius at the direction of his brother: Appian , for example, claims that he began campaigning on his own, and Mark not involved in his brother's actions. In the summer of 41 BC. e. Lucius occupied Rome with loyal troops and headed north from there, hoping to unite with detachments of regular troops Asinia Polliona And Ventidia Bassa . However Octavian, Agrippa And Salvidien Ruf prevented the connection of rebel troops and blocked Lucia Antonia in Perusia (modern Perugia). After a long siege and unsuccessful attempts to lift it Lucius gave up. Octavian pardoned him Fulvia , Ventidia Bassa And Asinia Polliona , but the city itself was given over to soldiers for plunder, and most of the local nobility were executed, with the exception of one person. To top it all off, the city burned to the ground: Appian And Velleius Paterculus The fire is blamed on the town's madman. Opponents Octaviana claimed that he ordered 300 Perusians to be sacrificed on the altar of the divine Caesar .
Many of the surviving participants in the uprising fled to Mark Anthony . Despite the affair with Cleopatra and being busy preparing for war with Parthia, Mark crossed to Italy and besieged the most important port of Brundisium (modern Brindisi). Soon they joined him Sextus Pompey And Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus . Only under the influence of soldiers who did not want to allow new clashes between the triumvirs, negotiations began in Brundisium with the mediation Gaia Asinius Polliona from the outside Antonia And Patron of the arts from the outside Octaviana. Both triumvirs made peace and redistributed the provinces. Anthony all the eastern provinces were given Octavian- all Western, but for Lepidus only the province of Africa remained. All triumvirs received the right to recruit new soldiers in Italy. The agreement was sealed by the marriage of the widowed Antonia on Octavia , sister Octaviana who recently lost her husband. Interests Sextus Pompey the triumvirs ignored him and he resumed the blockade
The redistribution of land in Italy disorganized agriculture, as peasant plots and former latifundia ended up in the hands of veterans. It is unclear whether they had everything they needed for agricultural work. The result of the redistribution of land was a food shortage, seriously aggravated by the naval blockade of the Apennines Sextus Pompey : by the middle of the 1st century BC. e. Most of the grain to supply Rome and Italy was imported by sea. The situation was complicated by the lack of Octaviana full-fledged military fleet, as well as the massive flight of slaves to Sextus Pompey , who promised them freedom in exchange for service in his ranks. Finally, on Octaviana The residents of Italy exerted pressure: they demanded the restoration of supplies not through another war, but through peaceful negotiations. At the beginning of 39 BC. e. Driven to despair, the Romans threw stones at the triumvirs. Octavian was forced to start negotiations with Sextom .
To demonstrate the seriousness of peaceful intentions Octavian, who has already divorced Claudia , married Scribonia . She was my father-in-law's sister Sextus Pompey Lucius Scribonius Libo and at the same time was a distant relative Pompey . The conclusion of this marriage contributed to a quick reconciliation with Pompey . The first stage of negotiations between the triumvirs and Pompey took place on a sandbank in the Bay of Naples, where two small wooden platforms were built for each side. The second stage, which took place either at Cape Mizen or in nearby Puteoli, was successful.
Pompey refused admission to the triumvirs instead Lepida , but otherwise Octavian And Anthony make concessions to him. They promised to grant amnesty to all those who had taken refuge in Sicily and to provide fugitive slaves from the army Pompey freedom and rewards similar to those paid to the soldiers of the triumvirate. Sextus legalized his control over Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, and also received the Peloponnese. In addition, his supporters were included among the magistrates for future years. In reply Pompey pledged to completely lift the naval blockade of Italy and facilitate its supply of grain. According to legend, the agreement was celebrated with a joint feast on the ship Pompey . During the dinner Menodore , chief naval commander Sixth , allegedly offered to kill Octaviana And Antonia , But Pompey refused.
Among the Romans who returned to the capital under the guarantees of the triumvirs was Tiberius Claudius Nero with his pregnant wife Livia Drusilla and little son Tiberius . U Octaviana And Libya a romance began, which soon ended in engagement and marriage. Claudius not only did not interfere with the marriage, but even collected a dowry for his wife and organized an engagement celebration in his house: the father Libya committed suicide due to being included in the proscription lists. The date of the wedding is unclear: according to different versions, it took place either three days after birth Druze , or still in the sixth month of pregnancy.
The peace treaty turned out to be fragile: despite the achievement of peace, Octavian began the construction of a navy, and Pompey delayed the dismantling of warships and the dissolution of their crews. Sextus did not officially restore the naval blockade, but pirates began to operate along the coast of Italy, and Octavian claimed that they were people Pompey . Soon to the side Guy ran across Menodore and surrendered Sardinia and Corsica to him. Octavian accepted Menodora and strengthened coastal security.
Soon the ships Pompey And Octaviana converged at Qom in the Gulf of Naples. The fierce battle ended in victory for the Pompeians. However, the fleet commander Pompey Menecrates was killed, and his replacement Demohar took the ships to Messana (modern Messina) on the island of Sicily. Ships Octaviana followed him. The first clashes in the Strait of Messina were unsuccessful for the triumvirate, and a storm that soon broke out forced it to retreat. Guy lost more than half of the ships and requested help from Antonia . After the differences between the triumvirs were settled through mediation Octavia And Patron of the arts , spring 37 BC. e. they met in Tarentum. They agreed to extend the triumvirate's term of office for another five years. Moreover, in need of a fleet Octavian should have received from Antonia 120 ships. In trade for Mark , who was planning an invasion of Parthia, 20 thousand soldiers had to withdraw. Anthony fulfilled my part of the deal, but Octavian transferred to his colleague only a tenth of the promised troops.
After the extension of the triumvirate Octavian continued the construction of a new fleet. He had few experienced sailors at his disposal, and a new naval training base was created near Qom. For building a fleet Octavian forced the rich to make large donations and gave his slaves as oarsmen. Agrippa , who directly supervised the preparation of the fleet, took into account the experience of previous battles and built larger ships with a crane hook (harpagus; Latin harpax) to destroy the gear of enemy ships (it is unclear whether this device was a Roman invention, or whether it was used in the Hellenistic era).
In '36 Octavian And Lepidus organized a landing in Sicily; although he himself Octavian suffered a severe defeat, his faithful companion and best military leader Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa saved the day and Sextus was broken. Lepidus , who quarreled with his ally after the victory, was abandoned by his troops and displaced.
After defeating Sextus Pompey Octavian began to prepare for the coming war with Anthony , without, however, breaking off relations with him. Consuls continued to be elected in accordance with the Treaty of Tarentum - usually one companion from each of the two remaining triumvirs. However Agrippa at the direction Octaviana continued to increase the strength of the navy, the purpose of which was to prevent the landing Antonia to Italy. Myself Octavian in 35 BC e. led the invasion of Illyria, which was seen both as training for the soldiers and as an excuse not to disband a large army. Moreover, with this hike Octavian hoped to strengthen his authority as a commander in the eyes of the army. Moreover, in Illyria Guy could hope to capture slaves and recruit auxiliary troops. Probably, other directions for waging war were also considered: Dio Cassius mentions failed plans to invade Britain.
As a result of the war in Illyria Octavian strengthened his authority in the army and among the people of Italy, becoming equal to the recognized master of war Anthony , whose reputation suffered from failure in Parthia. He used the spoils looted during the war to support monumental construction in the capital and to organize luxurious public events in order to gain the support of the urban plebs. The commander himself received the right to triumph, but did not immediately take advantage of it. However, the successes of the Romans in Illyria turned out to be fragile: the troops Octaviana avoided participation in protracted campaigns and therefore managed to establish control only over the territory near the Adriatic coast, and in 6 AD. e. A major uprising broke out in the conquered territory.
After death Sextus Pompey the surviving Republicans were forced to choose between Octavian and Anthony . Many of them joined Mark . Antonia also supported by many neutral senators, who saw in him less evil compared to the vindictive Octavian, which, in their opinion, destroyed the remnants of republican freedoms. Octavian he relied on the veterans who owed him the land Caesar , to the business circles of Italy and to his friends, whom he actively promoted through their careers. However, his old friend Salvidiena Rufa , governor of Transalpine Gaul and commander of a large army, Octavian brought to trial for treason - he allegedly conducted behind-the-scenes negotiations with Anthony . As a result, he committed suicide or was executed.
Around 35 BC e. Octavian sent to Anthony , who was defeated by the Parthians, money and military equipment, as well as soldiers, whom he had to transfer under the Treaty of Tarentum in exchange for 120 ships. However, instead of the promised 20 thousand soldiers Guy sent only 2 thousand legionnaires to the East. The convoy was accompanied by Octavia , legal wife Brand , although his connection with Cleopatra was well known. Apparently Guy hoped that Anthony would provoke a scandal that he could use to start a war. Anthony acted carefully and did not give Guy cause for serious accusations, although sources give different details about the mission Octavia . Octavian also did not allow his colleague to recruit troops in Italy, despite the existence of such a possibility under the agreement in Tarentum. The inability to receive reinforcements from Italy pushed Antonia to concessions Cleopatra . Subsequently Octavian began to publicly accuse Antonia in arbitrariness and betrayal of the interests of Rome, focusing especially on the unauthorized redrawing of borders and the distribution of titles to please the Egyptian queen. Another issue around which the accusations were built Guy , became a failure Antonia from a Roman wife in favor of a foreigner. Anthony tried to defend against attacks Octaviana. Suetonius preserved a fragment of his letter, written in response to accusations of violating the sacred bonds of marriage:
“Why are you angry? Because I live with the queen? But she is my wife, and not since yesterday, but for nine years. It's like you're living with one Drusilla ? I'll be sorry if, while you're reading this letter, you haven't slept with your Tertulla , or Terentilla , or Rufilla , or Salvia Titisenia , or with everyone at once - and does it really matter, in the end, where and with whom you get confused?”
The triumvirs also argued which of them was to blame for the death of a rather popular Sextus Pompey , and is Caesarion legal heir Caesar instead of Octaviana.
Until the expiration of the second triumvirate, the powers Octaviana And Antonia exceeded the powers of the consuls. The exact date of the end of the triumvirate is unclear - either December 31, 33 BC. e., or (less likely) December 31, 32 BC. e. Octavian did not officially relinquish the powers of the triumvir after their expiration, but did not use them either. January 1, 33 BC e. he became consul, but just a few hours later transferred authority Lucius Antonius Petus . In summer Anthony abandoned preparations for a new war with Parthia and began to redeploy troops closer to Greece, which is usually considered evidence of a sharp deterioration in relations between the triumvirs. On January 1 of the following year, supporters took office Antonia , who took advantage of their position and launched a new stage of propaganda campaign directed against Octaviana. Guy responded to this by appearing at a meeting of the Senate, accompanied by armed supporters. After this show of force, many senators defected to the Antonia . Both consuls also crossed over to him. Although it provided Mark a convenient opportunity to respond to the violation of the rights of the Senate, he did nothing. Moreover, among supporters Antonia there was no unity: some of them advocated a break with Cleopatra and reconciliation with Octavian, however, supporters of the Egyptian queen turned out to be more influential. This led to the flight of many noble Romans in the opposite direction, to Guy.
Among the defectors Octavian turned out to be Lucius Munatius Plancus And Marcus Titius . Being closest associates Antonia, they were witnesses at the signing of his will and told Guy about its contents. Octavian took the will from the Vestal priestesses who kept it, after which he opened and announced some of its points before the Senate (such disregard for the secrecy of the will was considered blasphemy). The provisions of the will known from sources are certainly authentic; however, the possibility of disclosing Octavian individual phrases without context, and the falsification of the read document. Influenced Octaviana the Senate deprived Antonia all powers, including the consulate planned for next year, but only declared war Cleopatra .
The form of government established August and, in basic terms, preserved until the establishment of an absolute monarchy (dominant), in historiography it is designated as a principate (Latin principatus, from princeps, after the honorary title princeps - “first [in the Senate]”). Contemporaries did not use the term “principate” in a political sense, although it had already come into use by the time of the historian’s life Tacita (end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd century AD). The Principate was formed on the basis of the republican system, largely maintaining continuity with the political institutions of the Roman Republic. Octavian did not seek to collect all republican offices and conceivable honors and titles. Instead, he concentrated in his hands for an unlimited time the highest power in the provinces (imperium - empires) and broad powers in the capital (tribunicia potestas - the power of the tribune). This was the first time such a combination of powers had been encountered - Sulla And Caesar ruled using dictatorial powers - and to maintain his position, the emperor consistently strengthened his authority among the inhabitants of the empire (auctoritas). A huge army was also under the complete control of the emperor.
The foundations of the Principate were laid by the reforms of 27-23 BC. e. January 13, 27 BC e. Octavian made a speech to the Senate in which he declared his readiness to renounce all emergency powers in favor of the Senate and the people. Carefully choreographed performance Dio Cassius mentions that a group of supporters Octaviana supported him with applause) came as a surprise to the senators, who had recently been cleared of unwanted Octavian persons and they refused Octavian. Moreover, the Senate granted him the right to govern the Spanish and Gallic provinces, as well as Syria, for a renewable 10-year term (usually the governor received one province for one year). Egypt was recognized as a "personal possession" Octaviana. On January 16, at a new meeting, the Senate bestowed on him a number of honors, most notably the name "Augustus", as a result of which the full official name of the ruler became "Emperor" Caesar Augustus, son of God" (Imperator Caesar Augustus divi filius), and in short - Caesar Augustus. Including a new element in a full name was not an invention Octaviana: Sulla took the name Felix (Happy), Pompey - Magnus (Great). At the same time, the word “August” had a pronounced religious connotation and referred to the well-known lines of the poet Ennia about the founding of Rome after “sacred fortune-telling” (augusto augurio). Initially Octavian it was proposed to add the name “Romulus” instead of “Augustus,” after the mythical founder of Rome, who performed the “August” fortune-telling, but he refused. The reasons for the ruler’s refusal to use the name “Romulus” were both associations with the murder of his brother Remus and the royal power he established. Proconsular power operated only in the provinces, and in Rome Octavian continued to exercise the powers of consul, holding this position annually.
In 24-23 BC. e. Octavian consolidated its position with new political reforms. In 24 BC. e. senators, according to Dione Cassia , freed the ruler from obeying the laws, which is interpreted as immunity from prosecution. The following year, a political crisis broke out, caused primarily by the illness of the emperor. Agrippa , hoping to become a successor Octaviana, was unhappy with the elevation Marcellus - nephew and son-in-law of the ruler. Some historians date it back to 23 BC. e. trial Brand Prima and conspiracy Caepion And Moray eels , which complicated the position of the ruler. August managed to reconcile Agrippa With Marcellus , but the latter soon died. July 1 Octavian unexpectedly resigned as consul and refused to be elected in the future. Instead of a consulate August received from the Senate a “greater imperium” (imperium maius), thanks to which he was able to intervene in the administration of not only his own, but also the Senate provinces. The Senate also granted Octavian the powers of the people's tribunes (tribunicia potestas), but not the position itself, which was available only to plebeians. The power of the tribune gave him the right of legislative initiative, lost when he resigned his consular powers, as well as the right to veto (intercession) any laws adopted. The sacred sanctity inherent in the stands, Octavian received back in 36 BC. e. After 23 BC e. Octavian concentrated in his hands both the highest power in the provinces of the Roman Empire and broad legal powers in Rome. The combination of the two powers turned out to be very stable, and subsequent emperors relied mainly on them.
When in Rome in 22 BC. e. famine began, a rumor spread that a crop failure and a severe flood were sent down to Italy due to the fact that Octavian no longer holds the position of consul. According to the message Dione Cassia , people began to ask Octaviana accept the position of dictator, abolished after the assassination Caesar . The same historian claims that soon August offered to become third consul for life and even granted this right. After this, a third was allegedly installed between the two curule seats in the Senate, for Octaviana. However, modern researchers admit that the ancient author could have been mistaken. Finally, to the board Octaviana Romans convicted by a court lost the right to apply for a review of punishment to the popular assembly (provocatio ad populum), but instead could ask for clemency from the emperor (apellatio ad Caesarem).
The Downside of Maintaining Republican Political Institutions and Refusing Octaviana From the legal consolidation of sole power it became impossible to appoint a successor. In addition, not all people who accepted the establishment of the Principate agreed to inherit power. It is possible that around 24 BC. e. Octavian thought about leaving politics, and to ensure a calm old age, he gave himself judicial immunity. However, contemporaries did not know whom he planned to make his successor. The most obvious candidate was the emperor's nephew and son-in-law Marcellus , Although Octavian and denied his plans for him. During the crisis next year, sick Octavian handed over his ring Agrippa , which was interpreted by the senators as an intention to transfer power to him. After recovery, the emperor continued to assign important tasks Marcellus .
Octavian endowed Agrippa , his closest supporter, the powers of a tribune and, possibly, a “great empire” (imperium maius) for a five-year term with the right of extension. At the insistence of the emperor, the widowed Julia married Agrippa . But the principate did not turn into dual power. Apparently the powers Agrippa were supposed to ensure the stability of the state in the event of the death of a frequently ill person Augusta. Since Octaviana there were still no natural sons, he adopted children who were born soon Agrippa And Julia - Guy And Lucia - using the half-forgotten procedure of a fictitious purchase. It is assumed that he prepared them for power from childhood, hiring a famous teacher Brand Verria Flacca and sometimes joining in their training. Tiberius And Drusus , the emperor's stepsons thus ceased to be considered as the main heirs. Some historians suggest that Agrippa was supposed to become regent for the new children Octaviana, but this presupposed the establishment of a hereditary monarchy.
In 12 BC. e. Agrippa died and Octavian plans for the transfer of power had to be reconsidered. Guy And Lucius were too young, and the emperor accelerated the career advancement of an adult Tiberius (Drusus died in 9 BC e.). The emperor's stepson was a successful commander, and his abilities were not questioned, although ancient authors mention his complex character. Octavian gained the right for him to hold positions five years earlier than the required age, married him to a newly widowed Julia (having previously ordered Tiberius divorce Vipsania ) and began to entrust commands in important wars. Tiberius he did not immediately receive the power of a tribune, and he was not awarded the “greater empire” (imperium maius).
In 6 BC. e. Tiberius unexpectedly resigned from all his positions and announced his retirement from politics. His mother and adoptive father tried unsuccessfully to convince him, but he went on a hunger strike. On the fourth day Octavian allowed Tiberius leave Rome and he sailed to Rhodes. Reasons for the sudden decision Tiberius were unclear even in ancient times, and to date no single satisfactory explanation has been proposed. After his stepson left politics Octavian placed all his hopes on Guy And Lucia : He personally introduced them to the Romans, and they were soon nicknamed “princeps of youth” (principes iuventutis). The emperor allowed them to sit in the Senate and hoped to make them consuls much earlier than their required age. He delegated responsible assignments to more mature relatives - in particular, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus . In 2 AD e. Lucius Caesar died unexpectedly in Massilia (modern Marseille), and on February 21, 4 AD. e. died from a serious wound Guy .
Shortly before death Guy returned to Rome Tiberius . Octavian returned to him the powers of tribune for a ten-year term and entrusted him first with the leadership of operations in Germany, and then with the suppression of the uprising in Pannonia and Illyricum. June 26, 4 AD e. the emperor finally adopted Tiberius , as well as a third son Agrippa - Agrippa Posthumus (Suetonius mentions that he decided to take this step reluctantly). However, already in 7 BC. e. Agrippa Postumus quarreled with the emperor, and Octavian expelled him from Rome, and then crossed him out of his will.
After the uprising of the Germans led by Arminius , who surrounded and destroyed three legions along with the commander in the Teutoburg Forest (9 AD), August I had to leave Trans-Rhine Germany forever. In 8 AD e. a scandal erupted with Yulia Younger - granddaughter Augusta, exactly repeating the fate of her mother. At the same time August, without explaining the reasons, forever banished from Rome one of the greatest Roman poets Ovid . Now he rarely left his palace and had lost much of his former flexibility and courtesy. When one day the popular assembly elected magistrates he did not like, he simply canceled the elections and appointed whomever he considered necessary. This potential of tyranny, inherent in the system of the principate that he established, was fully revealed under his closest successors - the emperors from the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
However, in general, the political system established under Augustus provided the Roman Empire with two centuries of peace and prosperity and had a profound impact on the subsequent history of European civilization.
In 13 AD e. tribune power Tiberius was renewed for ten years, and at about the same time he received imperium maius. Thanks to this preparation, death Augusta August 19, 14 AD e. allowed for a peaceful transition of power to Tiberius . However, short-lived unrest began in the legions on the Danube and Rhine, caused by the desire of the troops to proclaim Emperor Germanicus the Younger , and another possible contender for the inheritance Augusta, Agrippa Postumus , was killed under unclear circumstances.
Body Augusta They were cremated on the Champ de Mars, and the urn with the emperor’s ashes was placed in a long-built mausoleum, where his relatives were already buried. His main heirs according to the will were Tiberius And Libya , another adopted son - Agrippa Postumus - was not mentioned at all in the will, and about his own daughter and granddaughter, he left only one instruction: not to bury them in his mausoleum. The will was accompanied by instructions on the order of his own funeral, a report on the state of the state (not preserved), as well as a short autobiography to be placed in front of the mausoleum, which has survived to this day and is known as “The Acts of the Divine Augustus.”
Octavian managed to take into account the experience of dictatorship Caesar to formalize personal power and convince others that it is necessary and inevitable. Hesitating to establish an open monarchy, Octavian used republican institutions to legalize its de facto dominant position. But already in the 1st century BC. e. reluctance Octaviana To establish the hereditary nature of the power of the princeps predetermined the crises of the transfer of the throne.
Octavian reformed the army, hoping, apparently, to conquer first all of Europe, and then the entire inhabited world. However, this plan failed - primarily due to the underestimation of the "barbarians", which resulted in uprisings in Pannonia and Germany. In addition, the emperor completely centralized the leadership of the army, and his desire to eradicate any political activity of provincial commanders predetermined the lack of flexibility of the army. The emperor managed to keep the army under control, but later it turned into an independent political force. An important achievement of the emperor was the end of civil wars, as a result of which agriculture, crafts and Mediterranean trade strengthened. Social support Octaviana was very wide, and the emperor himself did not give preference to senators, horsemen, or any other groups of the population. Finally, the formation of the Principate completed the transformation of Rome from a sprawling city-state, still governed by elected magistrates, into a world power with a nascent bureaucracy.
August led a policy of conquest and the establishment of a long and lasting peace within the empire. He conquered more countries and peoples than all other emperors combined, and at the end of his life he announced that he had brought “the entire circle of lands” (orbis terrarum) under Roman rule. Egypt was conquered in the east (30 BC), in the west - the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula (19 BC), in the north by the end of the reign Augusta- lands along the southern bank of the Danube to its sources and mouth, as well as between the Rhine and Elbe. For the first time, campaigns were made in Ethiopia, South Arabia and Dacia.
Taking advantage of civil strife in Parthia, Augustus Octavian achieved the return to Rome of previously captured banners and prisoners (20 BC). The children of Parthian and other foreign kings were raised at court Augusta, who often elevated his proteges to the thrones of neighboring states. Under him, diplomatic ties with India were established for the first time. Having established reliable control over the kingdoms dependent on Rome, he prepared their subsequent transformation into Roman provinces.
August sought to strengthen the traditional social order. Having issued the most severe laws against rebellious slaves, he allowed the submissive to seek protection from the authorities against the cruelty of their masters. Landless rural plebeians began to receive land or money to start a farm for serving in the army. The numerous urban plebs in Rome were pacified by regular distributions of free bread and magnificent shows. With provinces August and his successors followed the model of the good shepherd, "who shears his sheep and does not skin them." Decurions of provincial cities could now receive Roman citizenship for service to the Roman state, and later senatorial and equestrian ranks.
August suppressed conspiracies of individual dissatisfied aristocrats in the bud. As a result, he managed to smooth out the most acute social contradictions and establish peace and quiet in the state for many years.
The most important instrument of his policy was state propaganda, which he used more systematically and effectively than any other ruler of the ancient world. He behaved like an exemplary citizen of the “restored republic”, controlling his every action and every word, and was the first to make speeches “on paper”, so as not to say anything unnecessary. He allowed himself to be portrayed only by the best masters and only in a solemn spirit; under him, a new artistic style (“Augustian classicism”) was established, which was used to glorify “the system of the fathers restored by Augustus.”
Perceived by his contemporaries and descendants as the happy chosen one of the gods, he became an indisputable authority and role model for most of his successors.
Governing body Octaviana was marked by a decrease in the influence of the Senate on Roman politics and the emergence of the cult of the emperor (among the manifestations of the latter was the renaming of one of the months to August).
August divided Rome into 14 districts, decorated the city with numerous new buildings (imperial palace and forum, altar of Peace, mausoleum on the Campus Martius, etc.). Intensive construction activity Augusta attributed to both ideological and economic functions (reducing unemployment).
Octavian laid out the richly decorated Forum of Augustus with a large temple of Mars the Avenger. To the board Octaviana Marble began to be actively used in the capital. The first structure built entirely from Carrara marble was probably the Temple of Apollo. Octavian early (at the end of the 30s BC, when he was about 30 years old) he laid out his future tomb (mausoleum Augusta), which was associated both with frequent illnesses and with the desire to oppose oneself Anthony , who wished to be buried in Alexandria. In 29 BC. e. the Curia Julia and the temple were opened at the forum Caesar . In 20 BC. e. A column was also installed there indicating the distances to other cities. The emperor bought several houses on the Palatine Hill at state expense and built his own, rather modest house in their place. On the island of Capri, which he exchanged with the Neapolitans, Octavian mortgaged the villa.
Octavian paid a lot of attention to civil engineering. During his reign, many old roads were repaired and new ones were built, new markets and warehouses were built. Many public buildings were built under the supervision Agrippa , whose construction activities are considered closely related to Octavian. In particular, the emperor's associate built two new aqueducts and repaired several old ones, and built hundreds of cisterns and fountains. He repaired many of the capital's streets, public buildings and city sewers, and also completed the construction of Septa Julius, which had begun Caesar . On the Champ de Mars Agrippa built large public baths, an artificial lake, a canal and landscaped gardens, and installed a map of the world at the Forum. After death Agrippa Octavian created a commission of three senators to oversee the condition of public buildings (curatores locorum publicorum iudicandorum). Some buildings at the beginning of the reign Octaviana were erected in the capital by triumphant commanders after returning from their campaigns of conquest (in particular, Gaius Asinius Pollio built and stocked the first public library in Rome). However, when Octavians the practice of granting triumphs to strangers ceased, which stopped the construction of public buildings by generals. The last major building erected by the triumphant commander was the Balba Theater. After another major fire in Rome in 6 BC. e. Octavian organized 7 cohorts of regular fire brigades (vigili) led by the prefect of the vigils instead of the previous private brigades. In addition to putting out fires, the Vigils also maintained order at night.
The emperor began the systematic minting of gold coins - aureus with a face value of 25 denarii or 100 sesterces (previously, gold coins were produced irregularly in Rome). The introduction of gold coins into the monetary system allowed the inhabitants of the empire to conveniently conclude transactions of any scale - from real estate to food. Sestertius and dupondium began to be minted from orichalcum (brass), an alloy that occupied an intermediate position between bronze and silver. More Caesar , while dictator, faced a financial crisis caused in part by a lack of cash. Conquests Octaviana, first of all, the annexation of Egypt, as well as the beginning of regular minting of gold coins, solved the problem of cash shortages in the economy. Large-scale injections of money into the economy during his reign led to a jump in prices.
The minting of silver and gold coins began outside of Rome under the direction of the emperor. The largest mint was Lugdunum (modern Lyon). Between 14 and 12 BC. e. The Senate finally stopped minting silver and gold coins, and in the capital, under its supervision, only small bronze coins continued to be minted, which were marked with the letters SC (Senatus Consulto). To the board Octaviana control over the production of money is centralized, and the names of monetarii (officials responsible for minting) gradually disappear from coins. For some time, the eastern provinces (primarily in Egypt) maintained their own coinage systems and independent minting centers. The emperor introduced the custom of frequent, although not constant, placement of his profile on the obverse of coins, and on the reverse he often placed scenes from his own life, honors received and portraits of relatives. Finally, when Octavians coins became an important propaganda tool for the new government with the help of accessible symbols and slogans that were embossed on coins. However, it is incorrect to consider all monetary policy propaganda Augusta: Firstly, most of the inhabitants of the empire did not use gold and, to some extent, silver coins with varied and detailed subjects in everyday life. Secondly, many large issues of coins had rather trivial images, and many striking examples of propaganda of the new government are found on coins issued in small editions
The emperor created a separate treasury, which received income from the imperial provinces (fiscus - fisk). It existed in parallel with the state treasury, controlled by the Senate (aerarium - erarium). In 23 BC. e. he transferred control of the aerarium to praetors instead of quaestors. In addition to the fiscal Octavian managed a large personal fund (patrimonium), which was filled with personal property, income from conquests, estates and inheritances. The emperor often interfered with the activities of the erarium. However, during his reign there was still no clear line between them: apparently, the fiscus and the aerarium were finally separated only under subsequent emperors.
To the board Octaviana Taxation was reformed. First, the princeps unified the system of taxation of the imperial provinces, and soon the collection of taxes from the Senate provinces was revised according to the same model. The most important innovation was the regular nature of tax collection. Octavian refused to hand over direct taxes to the publicans and transferred their collection to individual communities. The general principles for collecting land tax (tributum soli) were unified, although its rates varied, and in some provinces it was levied on finished products. It is assumed that due to insufficiently developed market relations, peasants often paid taxes in products, which the state accepted at fixed prices and accounted for as payment in cash. The capitation tax began to be collected on a regular basis. At the same time, the republican principle was preserved, under which Roman citizens and holders of Latin citizenship were not subject to direct taxes. At the beginning of the reign Octaviana Hellenistic tax systems remained in some eastern provinces, but they were gradually replaced by taxation according to Roman rules. The emperor also took into account the interests of influential tax farmers, leaving behind them the right to collect certain types of taxes, although the publicans were not allowed into the newly formed provinces, and their influence gradually declined. Trade between provinces was subject to duties, but they were small and did not interfere with the development of Mediterranean trade. Octavian established a five percent tax on the emancipation of slaves and on inheritances. The emperor began publishing reports on the state of public finances (rationes imperii).
During the era of the Empire, money began to be widely used in all spheres of society, and Strabo , contemporary Octaviana, already viewed barter as a “barbaric” method of exchange. As a result, the level of monetization of the economy of the Roman state was significantly higher both compared to the era of the Republic and compared to the late antique period. By the end of the reign Augusta it amounted, according to modern estimates, to about half of GNP. Until the 3rd century AD. e. money emission, subordinated primarily to the implementation of state interests, did not create serious problems in the functioning of the economy. This is due to the existence of certain elementary, experience-based ideas about the state’s monetary policy, which made it possible to maintain a single exchange rate in a complex system of coins made of four different metals, while avoiding a long-term shortage of cash.
The conquest of Egypt and the right to use harbors in Southern Arabia made it possible to establish a direct sea route to India and greatly increase the volume of trade compared to the previous period. However, foreign trade did not play a big role: mainly luxury goods were imported from outside the Roman state. On the contrary, trade between provinces satisfied the population's needs for grain, olive oil, wine and other everyday goods. Maritime trade flourished thanks to the establishment of peace in the Mediterranean and the eradication of piracy. The development of trade was facilitated by the involvement of the conquered territories in market relations, the restoration of large trading centers (primarily Carthage and Corinth), the modernization of the road network, as well as the non-interference of the state in trade transactions. To the board Octaviana Italy experienced economic prosperity thanks to the development of new technologies and the opening of new industries, the opening of large markets and successful competition with the developed crafts of the eastern provinces. Increased exports made it possible to significantly reduce Italy's trade deficit. An additional factor in the economic prosperity of Italy was the development of the provinces: while the colonists had not yet mastered Italian technologies and had not yet managed to plant perennial crops (primarily grapes), many finished goods were exported there from the metropolis.
Businessmen from all over the empire took advantage of the development of trade, and the main business activity moved from the capital to Italy and the provinces. At the same time, the free Italian peasantry was in decline due to the increasing role of slaves in agriculture and constant grain distributions in Rome, as a result of which the cultivation of grain in Italy became unprofitable. The problem of weakening the peasants - the support of the Roman army in the Republican era - was recognized at the highest level, but the emperor did not take any real measures ( Suetonius mentions the emperor’s plans to eliminate grain distributions precisely for the sake of supporting the peasantry, which he himself abandoned due to their futility). After difficulties with supplying the capital with grain in 23 BC. e. Octavian for some time he personally supervised the supply of Rome with the help of the powers of cura annonae, and in about 6 AD. e. created the special position of Prefect Annona to direct these activities on a regular basis. At the same time, he reduced the number of recipients of free bread from 320 to 200 thousand people.
Appearance Octaviana known from numerous surviving statues. According to the message Suetonius , Octavian was short, but this was noticeable only in comparison with tall people. The same author mentions the testimony of the emperor's secretary that he was five and three quarters feet tall (about 170 cm), which was even higher than the average height at that time. Despite the average height, Octavian He considered himself not tall enough and therefore resorted to using shoes with high soles.
Pliny the Elder mentions that Octaviana there were bright eyes, Suetonius describes his eyes as light and shiny, and also mentions that he began to see worse in his left eye as he grew older.
“He was handsome in appearance and remained attractive at any age, although he did not try to preen himself. He cared so little about his hair that he allowed several barbers to comb his hair for speed.<...>His teeth were sparse, small, uneven,<...>the eyebrows are fused, the ears are small, the nose is hooked and pointed, the skin color is between dark and white.”
Octavian was extremely superstitious and did not hide his fears from others. After lightning killed a slave walking in front of his stretcher, he began to fear thunderstorms: he carried a seal skin with him (it was believed that lightning never struck this animal), and during severe thunderstorms he hid in an underground shelter. Under the influence of prophetic dreams, he fled from the battlefield of Philippi, decorated the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol with bells, and returned the sculptor’s statue of Apollo to Ephesus Mirona , and every year he asked the Romans for alms. Suetonius even reports in general terms the statistics of dreams that have come true - probably the emperor kept similar calculations. Octavian believed in signs, omens and miracles, and by his own decision avoided starting new things on the nones of each month.
Octavian was afraid of people with dwarfism and physical defects, although he once demonstrated to the Roman public a certain Lucia two feet tall (about 57 cm), and a dwarf Konop played with his granddaughter Julia .
The emperor was afraid of assassination attempts - for example, he ordered the torture (and allegedly even personally killed) the Roman praetor, suspecting a cache for weapons in the writing tablets in his hands; During the revision of the list of senators, he was in armor and surrounded himself with the strongest friends.
Octavian slept poorly, waking up several times a night, and rarely slept more than seven hours. The emperor did not like to get up early, often dozed during the day, and in 36 BC. e. I almost slept through the beginning of the Battle of Navlokh. In hot weather Octavian slept in a room with open doors or in a courtyard near a fountain, while a slave fanned him. During the day, he tried to avoid the sun by wearing some kind of hat. In winter, the emperor wore a thick toga, several tunics, and leg wraps. Suetonius also retained a description of gastronomic habits Octaviana. According to the Roman historian, he ate little and during the day he snacked whenever he felt hungry. The emperor preferred to snack on coarse bread, dates, wet cheese, small fish, cucumbers, lettuce, fresh and dried apples and other simple foods. For dinners - very simple for his time - he carefully selected the guests, but he appeared at the table later than everyone else, and left first, and sometimes dined before the guests arrived or after they left. By Roman standards, he drank little, usually limiting himself to three cups of cheap Rhaetian wine, and rarely drank more than one sextary (about 0.55 l). However, in the 30s BC. e., when Rome experienced food shortages, Octaviana accused of organizing a luxurious dinner with a re-enactment of the feast of the Olympian gods.
The emperor's favorite pastime was dice - the main gambling game of antiquity. He played constantly, with relatives, friends and slaves, and often for money, sometimes losing tens of thousands of sesterces. He was engaged in physical training and training with weapons until the end of the civil wars, and subsequently limited himself to exercises with a ball, walking and jogging. In addition, he loved to fish. The emperor collected unusual bones of large animals and armor of heroes. On the contrary, he did not collect objects of art that were popular among his contemporaries, although he was accused of being partial to expensive Corinthian vases: he allegedly even included people in proscription lists because of these vases.
Octavian He lived a long life by ancient Roman standards, but was often sick. In his youth, unknown illnesses prevented him from fully participating in his uncle's military campaigns and carrying out his orders in the capital. Sources attest to several cases of the disease in adolescence, as well as serious illnesses in 42, 33, 28, 26, 24 and 23 BC. e. However, subsequently the emperor’s health improved slightly. Frequent attacks of acute pain forced the emperor to often think about death: this is probably why, in his youth, he began to build his mausoleum, write his autobiography and make plans for the government in the future.
The reasons for the emperor's frequent illnesses are unclear. Dio Cassius directly connects one of the ailments Octaviana during the Cantabrian Overextension Wars. After returning from this campaign, the emperor, according to Suetonius , serious liver problems began. This unknown disease Octaviana cured or seriously alleviated by a new doctor Anthony Musa , who recommended the emperor cold compresses instead of hot poultices.
Octaviana He was often overcome by a runny nose, and every year at the beginning of spring and autumn he experienced slight ailments. The emperor tolerated heat and cold very poorly. Finally, in old age he suffered from rheumatism and weakness in his legs and arms. Suetonius also mentions stones in the bladder.
Although attempts to make a diagnosis based on existing information have been unsuccessful, it is believed that seasonal health problems and excessive use of skin scrapers indicate some type of allergy. The emperor's main illness has not been diagnosed. Due to the absence of visible symptoms and the disappearance of pain in 23 BC. e. some historians also admit the possibility of the fictitious nature of ailments Octaviana: supposedly rumors about his frequent illnesses and the imminent death of the ruler could make his subjects fear the onset of a new civil war
The emperor wrote quite a lot: the polemical essay “Objections to Brutus about “Cato””, “Encouragement to Philosophy”, a detailed autobiography “On His Life”, the poem “Sicily” and a collection of epigrams. He also began to compose a tragedy, but soon destroyed what he had written. All these works, except for the tragedy, were known to contemporaries, but were not preserved. Only the “Acts of the Divine Augustus” (a short autobiography carved in stone) and fragments from his correspondence, often quoted, have survived to this day. Suetonius And Avlom Gelliem . Unlike most speakers of his time, Octavian he did not waste time memorizing the texts of public speeches, but read them out. Octavian was a supporter of reflecting the oral norm of the Latin language in writing, which was expressed in some deviations from spelling rules. Suetonius who had access to autographs Augusta, reports that he did not separate words with spaces and did not move them to another line, assigning letters that did not fit next to each other. The Roman historian also recorded some of the favorite phraseological units and words often found in the emperor's correspondence and writings. Like all educated contemporaries, the emperor spoke ancient Greek, but did not dare to write in it. He knew Greek poetry well and loved classical comedians.
Octavian and especially his friends patronized the development of Roman culture, thanks to which the cognomen (third part of the name) of the emperor’s closest associate, Gaius Tsilnius Maecenas , has become a household name. Direction Augusta came the “golden age” of Roman literature - creativity Virgil , Horace , Ovid , Tibullah , Propertius , Tita Libya and other authors.
Octavian attached great importance to the restoration of public morality according to ancient Roman models. The idea of the decline of morals as the root cause of all strife and civil wars was widespread in Rome in the 1st century BC. e. (one of the most famous popularizers of this idea is the historian Guy Sallust Crispus ), and those around the first emperor defended similar ideas Titus Livy and, more diligently, Horace .
In 18-17 BC. e. Octavian passed at least two laws regulating Roman marriage. All men from the senatorial and equestrian classes under the age of 60 and women under 50 were required to be married, and senators were forbidden to marry the daughters of freedmen, no matter how rich they were. Punishments for non-compliance with the law included a ban on attending special events and restrictions on receiving inheritances. The law on adultery (lex de adulteris) was very harsh: lovers of married women faced large fines and exile, and the husband himself received the right to divorce his unfaithful wife using a simplified procedure. The husband even received the right to kill his lover without trial if he was a slave, a freedman of this family, as well as a gladiator or an actor (these and some other professions were defined in the law as people who made a living with their bodies - qui corpore quaestum facit). Bringing his wife and lover to justice became not a right, but an obligation: a man who for some reason did not inform on them was required by law to be brought to trial as a pimp. If the father caught his daughter with her lover, he even received the right to kill both of them without trial (however, the law did not allow executing the lover and leaving the daughter alive). Men could only be brought to trial for having an affair with a woman who was not a registered prostitute. Law Papia - Poppea 9 AD e. consolidated and clarified the provisions of previous laws (modern historians have no doubt that behind the adoption of this law was Octavian). From now on, bachelors were deprived of the right to receive property under a will, and childless people could receive no more than half of the amount specified by the testator. Tacitus mentions that the practice of applying the law led to many abuses, and the second emperor Tiberius created a special commission to improve the situation. At the same time, the Roman historian notes that during the time the law was in effect, the birth rate remained almost unchanged. In addition to the measures mentioned, additions and clarifications were made to the laws in 11 BC. e. and 4 AD e.
On the goals of unpopular family legislation Octaviana there is no consensus: restoration of traditional foundations to stabilize the state, obtaining a reason to persecute opponents, replenishing the treasury thanks to fines. Purely demographic tasks are also considered - increasing the number of soldiers in the future and reversing the trend towards an increase in the proportion of citizens from among the provincials and freedmen compared to the native inhabitants of Italy.
The Romans tried to circumvent the laws by using loopholes in them: for example, fictitious engagements with girls of premarital age became common, which were subsequently dissolved, but allowed for about two years to actually remain single and not be subject to discriminatory provisions of the laws. The time for the restoration of traditional patriarchal marriage turned out to be unsuccessful: it was during the reign of Octaviana The emancipation of women accelerated, and the emperor himself was reproached for the fact that his own family was by no means an example of integrity. Ovid in the poem “The Science of Love” he directly parodied family law Augusta, which accelerated the poet’s exile to distant Tomi (modern Constanta).
The policy of “correcting” morals was also expressed in the implementation of laws that limited luxury. In 18 BC. e. Octavian set very modest spending limits on feasts. He soon passed laws restricting the use of rich materials in women's clothing and the construction of overly lavish structures, including tombstones. Because the Tiberius again tried to limit spending on luxury, it is assumed that measures Octaviana turned out to be ineffective. Myself Octavian led a modest lifestyle compared to many wealthy contemporaries, although, for example, his daughter lived in grand style.
The emperor tried to restore the patriarchal old Roman traditions of slavery and in every possible way made it difficult for the owners to free the slaves. “He considered it especially important that the Roman people remain unspoiled and pure from the admixture of foreign or slave blood,” concludes Suetonius . To achieve these goals, he sought the adoption of various laws. Obstacles were created to free slaves under 30 years of age; slaves, once subjected to severe penalties, could not become full Roman citizens. The slave owner could no longer release more than a certain percentage of slaves - from 1/5 to ½, depending on their total number. There was also a ban on the freeing of slaves if this could harm the interests of creditors or patrons of their owners. For some conquered tribes, who were sold entirely into slavery, long periods were set before the possibility of liberation, or a mandatory condition was set that they would be taken away from their homeland. A 5% tax on the emancipation of slaves (vicesima libertatis) continued to exist. According to one version, it was to the board Octaviana the law also applies Junia – Norbana on endowing slaves freed in a simplified manner with the rights of not full Roman, but limited Latin citizenship. The reasons for these measures were probably the weakening of the influx of new slaves and the increase in the number of unemployed freedmen in the city. The emperor defiantly did not interfere in relations between slaves and masters, including the most egregious cases of arbitrariness. In 10 AD e. The Senate reaffirmed the ancient law that if a person was killed in his home, all the slaves in the house should be executed.
The emperor's religious policy, aimed at strengthening traditional Roman beliefs, is considered one of the most important directions of his activities to “restorate the republic.” Octavian repaired or rebuilt 82 temples and sanctuaries in Rome, restored the ceremony of augur fortune-telling for the prosperity of the state and people (auguris salutis), received the right to elevate families to the patrician class, which had thinned out due to wars and natural decline. In 12 BC. e., after death Lepida , Octavian became Pontifex Maximus. Using these powers, he restored the important priestly position of flamen Dialis, left vacant after suicide Lucia Cornelia Merula in 87 BC e. In 2 BC e. The emperor consecrated the temple of Mars the Avenger (Mars Ultor) in the Forum of Augustus, where the Senate would henceforth meet to discuss issues of war and peace. Games began to be held again at the Lupercalia festival and games in honor of the Lares, the patrons of crossroads. Restoring the veneration of the latter, Octavian ordered to repair all the lar sanctuaries at the intersections of streets and roads, and also ordered to add his own images to them. Slogans for ending wars and establishing peace (pax Augusta) were widely promoted, and in 13 BC. e. The altar of peace (ara pacis) was founded in Rome. In the “Acts of the Divine Augustus,” the emperor emphasized that during his reign the gates of the Temple of Janus were closed three times, which symbolized the end of all wars. Finally, veneration of the deified abstraction Pax Augusta (“Augustan’s world”) was established, accompanied by annual sacrifices.
In addition to the office of Pontifex Maximus, the emperor was a member of the priestly colleges of augurs, quindecemvirs and septemvir-epulones. When Octavian was in Rome, he participated in the performance of religious rituals and carefully observed numerous instructions for the great pontiff (for example, he avoided looking at the dead, even if he attended the funerals of loved ones). However, he did not move to the state house assigned to him by his position in the Forum (domus publica), but added a sanctuary of Vesta with an eternal flame to his house on the Palatine to bypass religious regulations. The emperor's attitude towards foreign religions changed depending on the circumstances. Despite the fact that in 42 BC. e. the triumvirs decided to begin construction of the temple of Serapis and Isis in Rome, Octavian subsequently stopped its construction due to Egyptian support Cleopatra Mark Antony (the temple was completed only during Caligula ). In 28 BC. e. he banned the practice of Egyptian cults in the capital, and after coming to power he showed disdain for the Egyptian gods. Using the powers of the great pontiff, in 12 BC. e. August ordered the burning of two thousand different prophetic books, very popular during the turbulent times of civil wars, and ordered the official edition of the prophecies of the Cumaean Sibyl to be sealed in the pedestal of the statue of Apollo Palatine. Earlier, in 33 BC. e., Agrippa (apparently at the direction of Octaviana) expelled magicians and astrologers from the capital.
Octavian connected his reign with the advent of a new, “golden” age. The Etruscan sages, from whom the Romans adopted the tradition of counting centuries, first declared the end of the previous, ninth century and the beginning of civil wars in 49 BC. e., and "comet Caesar » 44 BC e. However, in 17 BC. e. another comet appeared in the sky, and Octavian interpreted this as a true sign of the change of centuries, organizing luxurious Secular (Secular) games. The beginning of a new era was promoted, in particular, by the court poet Virgil , who predicted the advent of an eternal golden age:
“The last circle has come according to the broadcast of the prophetess of Kumskaya,
From now on anew the majestic system is beginning,
Virgo is coming to us again, Saturn’s kingdom is coming.”
At Octavians the formation of the cult of the emperor began, rooted in lifetime veneration Guy Julius Caesar . January 1, 42 BC e. the senators who survived the proscriptions proclaimed Caesar God that allowed Octavian call yourself the son of god. The first steps towards organized veneration of the ruler were taken on the initiative of the Senate and with the support of the people after the victory over Anthony . Emperor's birthday, death day Antonia , the day of return from the Egyptian campaign and the dates of the victories at Navloh and Aktion became holidays, and the birthday Antonia (presumably January 14) - a cursed day. At first time Octavian were not worshiped on an equal basis with the gods, which was manifested in sacrifices: animals were still sacrificed to the gods, and in honor of the genius (spirit) Octaviana Only libations (bloodless offerings) were to be made. His name was included in all official prayers and oaths, as well as in the hymn of the Salian priests. From the autumn of 19 BC. e. in honor of Augusta began to hold games and celebrations - Augustalia. Soon as a sacrifice to genius Augusta they began to bring bulls. In 8 BC. e. in honor of Augusta renamed the month of sextiles. It was originally planned to name September, the month of his birth, in honor of the emperor, but in memory of the first consulate and victory over Anthony The last month of summer was chosen for the renaming. February 5, 2 BC e. Octavian received from the Senate the honorary title of “father of the fatherland” (pater patriae or parens patriae).
Nevertheless, Octavian refused to accept honors inherent only to the gods - apparently for fear of repeating the fate of his adoptive father. Some historians deny the existence of an organized imperial cult during his lifetime Augusta, despite unequivocal evidence from sources. The statues of him that appeared in abundance in Rome contributed to the spread of the cult of the emperor - in the forum, in front of the temple of Mars the Avenger, in front of the Pantheon ( Agrippa wanted to install a statue of the emperor inside the temple, among the images of the gods, but Octavian refused), as well as in 265 small chapels on the streets and intersections of the city and other places. His images were often placed on coins, although previously portraits of living people were very rarely minted on Roman money. The emperor demanded that even in old age he be depicted as young, which conflicted with the traditions of the most realistic Roman portraits. As a result, not a single image exists Augusta in old age.
Lifetime veneration Octaviana differed markedly in Italy and the western provinces on the one hand, and in the eastern provinces on the other. In the West, there were only altars in his honor or together with the goddess Roma, and temples and numerous statues began to be installed posthumously. In the same time, Octavian inherited the attributes of power adopted in Egypt under the Ptolemies and ruled this province as their successor. Images of the Roman emperor made using Egyptian techniques have also been preserved. The Egyptian Greeks generally shared the indigenous view of the ruler-god and called him Zeus the Liberator (or Zeus the Deliverer). Temples were also built in his honor. The first of these was probably the sanctuary Antonia , pledged Cleopatra , but completed and consecrated as a temple Octaviana. Subsequently, other cities followed the example of Alexandria. Reverence Octaviana during his lifetime it also developed in Asia Minor. Some cities began to keep a new chronology with his victories over Anthony , others renamed themselves in his honor (in particular, this is how several cities appeared with the name Caesarea) or awarded him the honorary title of co-founder of their city. However, the emperor asked the Greeks to erect temples not in their honor, but only together with the goddess Roma, who symbolized Rome.
September 17, 14 AD e., a month after death, the Senate recognized Octaviana god and established a state cult in his honor. This decision was based primarily on the statement of a Roman senator that he saw how the soul Augusta ascends to heaven, and other favorable signs. By analogy with Caesar the deified ruler began to be called “divine” August"(divus Augustus). New Emperor Tiberius welcomed the veneration of his adoptive father in every possible way. Soon in honor Octaviana laid the foundation for a temple in Rome (its construction was completed Caligula ) and established a college of senior priests (flamins) to perform his cult. The first flamin was Germanicus , and the priestess of the new cult - Libya . They also organized another college of sodales Augustales from the most distinguished senators. Until the completion of the temple Octavian worshiped in the temple of Mars the Avenger, where a golden statue of him was erected. The status of holidays associated with the life of the deceased emperor increased.
Family of Octavian Augustus
Father: Guy Octavius(c. 101 BC - 59 BC), Roman senator of the equestrian class from a wealthy plebeian family Octaviev.
Mother: Atia Balba Caesonia(85 BC - 43 BC), niece Guy Julius Caesar (July 12, 100 BC - March 15, 44 BC), dictator (49 BC, 48 - 47 BC, 46 - 44 BC AD, February 44 BC - March 15, 44 BC), Pontifex Maximus (63 - 44 BC), Consul (59 BC) BC, 48 BC, 46 BC, January 1 – October 1, 45 BC, January 1 – March 15, 44 BC). Daughter Brand Atia Balba (105 BC – 52 BC), senator, cousin Gnaeus Pompey the Great , And Julia Caesaria the Younger (101 BC – 51 BC), sister Guy Julius Caesar .
Wife: 1. from 43 to 41 BC e. Claudia Pulchra (c. 54 BC - ?), daughter Publius Clodius Pulchra (93 BC – January 18, 52 BC), tribune of the people 58 BC. e. And Fulvia Bambula (77 BC - 40 BC).
2. from 40 to 39 BC e. 2. Scribonia On either (c. 70 BC - 16 AD), daughter Lucia Scribonius Libona (about 120 - after 70 BC), an ancient Roman statesman from the influential plebeian family of Scribonii.
Children:
Yulia Elder (30 October 39 BC - 14 AD), from 25 to 23 AD. BC. wife Mark of Claudius Marcellus (42 BC - 23 BC), nephew Augusta. From 21 BC e. to 12 BC e. wife Mark of Vipsania Agrippa (63 BC – 12 BC), Roman statesman and commander. From 12 BC e. to 2 AD e. wife Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (42 BC – 16 March 37 AD), 2nd Roman Emperor (19 August 14 – 16 March 37 AD).
3. from 38 BC e. to 14 AD e. 3. Livia Drusilla (30 January 58 BC - 29 AD), mother Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (42 BC – 16 March 37), 2nd Roman Emperor (19 August 14 – 16 March 37), great-grandmother Caligula (Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), 3rd Roman Emperor (18 March 37 – 24 January 41), grandmother Claudia (Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) (1 August 10 BC – 13 October 54), 4th Roman Emperor (24 January 41 – 13 October 54) and great-great-grandmother Nero (Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) (December 15, 37 - June 9, 68), 5th Roman Emperor (October 13, 54 - June 9, 68). Was deified by the emperor Claudius .
