1. Fascism in Germany: the path to power [§11 p.1 Zagladin]. The number of A. Hitler’s party from 1926 to 1929 increased from 17 to 120 thousand members. She created a pan-German territorial structure, formed paramilitary units, and her own secret police. Youth, women's and trade union organizations supporting the NSDAP emerged. Without renouncing violence, especially against communists, the fascist party set a course for coming to power peacefully, using the institutions of democracy.

In a crisis that revealed the government's apparent inability to provide solutions to social problems, the influence of the NSDAP grew rapidly. At the same time, although at a slower pace, the position of the communists strengthened. The German Communist Party (KPD) became one of the most influential in Western Europe. At the same time, as the results of repeat elections in 1932 showed, the NSDAP had already passed the peak of its popularity, and some of its voters began to become disillusioned with fascism.
Table 11. Results of elections to the Reichstag (1928-1933)

The consignment	Number of votes (millions)
	1928	1930	1932 July	November 1932	1933
Communist Party of Germany	3,3	4,6	5,3	6,0	5,0
NSDAP	0,8	6,4	13,0	11,0	17,3

Scheme 2.Distribution of seats in the Reichstag after the elections in November 1932

On January 30, 1933, German President P. Hindenburg appointed A. Hitler Reich Chancellor (head of government).

Under these conditions, the united actions of the communists and social democrats, who together had no less support in the Reichstag than A. Hitler’s party, could prevent the establishment of a fascist dictatorship. However, the leaders of the KPD believed that Germany was on the threshold of a socialist revolution and dreamed of a Soviet Germany. Ohms showed no interest in developing a joint program of action with the Social Democrats, which would provide a way out of the crisis. Their tactics remained the same.

The KPD addressed calls for united anti-fascist action only to ordinary Social Democrats, continuing to expose the leaders of the SPD as traitors to the interests of the working class. Some leaders of the Communist Party did not hide the conviction that for them the fascists were a lesser evil than the Social Democrats. They believed that Hitler, having come to power, would quickly lose all influence, the crisis would deepen, which would open the way to power for the KKE.

2. Fascist dictatorship in Germany [§11 p.2 Zagladin].

The first blow of the National Socialists was struck against the Communist Party. Arson of the Reichstag building in February 1933, attributed to the communists, became the reason for a campaign of repression against the leadership of the KKE. However, in the early elections to the Reichstag held in March, about 5 million voters voted for the Communists, 7 million supported the Social Democrats, and the NSDAP received 17.3 million votes.

In order to ensure the support of 2/3 of the votes in parliament required to change the constitution, the government of A. Hitler outlawed the KKE.

Having declared the mandates it had received invalid, the National Socialists, with the support of right-wing and center parties, held emergency powers law . The government received the right to issue laws without consideration by parliament. In the summer of 1933, all parties except the NSDAP were banned, the opposition press was closed, “bad” Germans who did not share fascist ideology were sent to concentration camps.
Concentration camps(concentration camps) - places of forced imprisonment of persons disliked by the ruling regime. In Germany, they also became death camps for millions of Jews, Slavs, political opponents of fascism, and prisoners of war.
After Hindenburg's death in 1934 A. Hitler concentrated in his hands the powers of the president, head of government and supreme commander-in-chief, declaring himselfFuhrer Germany.

1. 
   The ideology of fascism assumed that a single nation lived in a single state, headed by one leader.

• 
  The principle of strict centralization of power from top to bottom became the basis for the reorganization of the political system. The autonomy of the lands was abolished.
• 
  The structures of the NSDAP and the state are merged together. Party police - SS - turned into the secret police of the state, headed by G. Himmler.
• 
  All media were now subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education and Propaganda, which was headed by I. Goebbels. Works of art that contradicted the ideology of fascism were destroyed, books were burned at the stake. The performance of “unpatriotic” music was prohibited.
• 
  Trade unions have been replaced by a systemLabor Front , playing the role of the Ministry of Labor Distribution.

Accustomed to anarchy and permissiveness SA assault troops , in which in the 1920s. the unemployed and bankrupt petty bourgeois were recruited (they were used for pogroms and street demonstrations), were partially liquidated and partially subordinated to the army command. Stormtrooper leader, former ally of Hitler E. Röhm was accused of plotting against the Fuhrer and executed.

1. 
   Much attention was paideconomic management.

• 
  In 1934, the country's industry was placed under the control of territorial and production associations managed by the Ministry of Economy. The range of 80% of products, their prices, the number of hired workers who lost the right to strike, the level of wages, the length of the working day - everything was determined by the state.
• 
  Were introduced restrictions on foreign trade transactions. Exporting products required special permission from the Ministry of Economy. This was how it was achieved autarky - self-sufficiency in basic types of products, primarily agriculture.
• 
  To support agriculture, peasant debts were paid off, fixed prices were introduced for their products, and high duties were established on food imports. It was forbidden to sell or rent land.
• 
  The Labor Front sent unemployed townspeople to help the peasants. This was part of the National Socialists' social program related to the organization of public works and road construction. Its goal was to eliminate unemployment and lower taxes on small owners.

1. 
   Racial theory fascism became the basis of his national policy.

Peoples were divided into superior and inferior. The first included, first of all, the Germans, proclaimed the descendants of the ancient Aryans, who allegedly stood at the origins of European civilization. When Germany entered into a military alliance with Japan, the Japanese were recognized as the Aryans of Asia. Peoples whose lands were considered as an object of future conquest, in particular the Slavs, were declared inferior. The National Socialists showed particular hostility towards Jews. About 0.5 million of them lived in Germany.

ProgramAryanization of the economy included the expropriation of property, banks and enterprises of non-Aryans (they made up 1/15 of the bourgeoisie). This program has become one of the sources of funds for solving social problems. The expropriated property passed to the state, and was partially transferred to German bankers and industrialists.

The legal basis for Aryanization was 1935 nationality law , according to which those who could not prove their Aryan origin were not considered citizens of the country and their rights were limited. Marriages between Aryans and representatives of “lower” races, according to the law for the protection of the German nation and the purity of German blood, were prohibited.

The policy of the fascist regime, which established comprehensive (total) control over the life of society, did not encounter organized resistance.
Totalitarian state- a form of dictatorship in which all power belongs to one political force, which completely (entirely) controls society and all aspects of the lives of citizens.
The repressive nature of the regime, which mercilessly suppressed dissent, precluded open protest. Elimination of unemployment, establishment of guaranteed pay, assistance programs for non-working mothers, creation of a free education system, etc. approved by many Germans.

The National Socialists promised the Germans prosperity by seizing the lands of other peoples, especially in the East of Europe, and promised to turn the entire nation into a master race. Preparation for war became the main goal of the fascist regime. In 1936, a four-year plan for the creation of armed forces was adopted , capable of providing revenge for defeat in the First World War.

The preparation for war was facilitated by the propaganda of fascist ideas abroad. In German-speaking Austria, among Germans living in Czechoslovakia, descendants of immigrants from Germany in other countries, the ideas of uniting all Germans within the framework of Greater Germany were promoted. In 1934 in capital of Austria, Vienna, the National Socialist movement attempted to seize power.

In its search for allies abroad, A. Hitler's regime turned primarily to those countries that were not satisfied with the conditions of the Versailles-Washington system, where militaristic dictatorial regimes existed.

3. Fascist dictatorship in Italy [§11 p.3 Zagladin].

The first such ally of Germany in Europe was the fascist regime in Italy. Turn to creation totalitarian state began in Italy in 1925 and lasted for about a decade.

In 1925 B. Mussolini achieved the adoption of a law according to which the head of government was appointed by the king and was responsible to him, and not to parliament.

In 1926 the government received legislative powers, Parliament became an advisory body. The “anti-national” Communist and Socialist parties were dissolved, and then the rest of the political organizations, except the fascist party. All positions in the state apparatus began to be filled only by its members.

Trade unions were tasked with promoting the “moral and patriotic education” of their members. The task of protecting their social interests disappeared with the creation of 22 corporations that united entrepreneurs and trade unions across industries under state control.

Economic and political power was concentrated in the hands of the state, which, through the National Corporation Council and the Institute of Industrial Reconstruction, which monopolized the country's banks, began to exercise control over economic development.

Formally, Italy remained a parliamentary monarchy; in reality, the role of the king and parliament was reduced to zero. Mussolini also reorganized the electoral system, canceling the elections. Candidates for deputies to parliament were nominated by corporations and approved Great fascist council - the governing body of the fascist party.

Emerging in the 1920-1930s. in many countries fascist movements, as well as dictatorial regimes, borrowed the phraseology and methods of B. Mussolini and A. Hitler, appealed to the unity of the nation, its greatness, which meant the expansion of the country’s territory at the expense of its neighbors.

By 1939, out of 26 European countries, the democratic form of government was preserved in only 12. Fascist regimes and military dictatorships based on the army arose:

Author list	List by time	Dictatorships	Totalitarian regimes
in Italy (1925),	V Hungary (1920),	V Hungary (1920),	in Italy (1925),
in Germany (1933),	in Bulgaria (1922),	in Bulgaria (1922),	in Germany (1933),
V Hungary (1920),	in Albania (1925),	in Albania (1925),
in Bulgaria (1922),	in Italy (1925),	in Lithuania (1926),
in Spain (1930),	in Lithuania (1926),	in Poland (1926),
in Albania (1925),	in Poland (1926),	in Portugal (1926),
in Poland (1926),	in Portugal (1926),	in Yugoslavia (1929),
in Portugal (1926),	in Yugoslavia (1929),	in Spain (1930),
in Lithuania (1926),	in Spain (1930),	in Austria (1933),
in Yugoslavia (1929),	in Austria (1933),	in Latvia (1934),
in Austria (1933),	in Germany (1933),	in Estonia (1934),
in Estonia (1934),	in Latvia (1934),	in Greece (1936),
in Latvia (1934),	in Estonia (1934),	in Romania (1938).
in Greece (1936),	in Greece (1936),
in Romania (1938).	in Romania (1938).

Not all of these regimes turned out to be durable, but the process of fascisation of Europe manifested itself quite clearly .

4. Nationalism and militarism in Japan [§11 p.4 Zagladin].

Militant nationalism took a special form in Japan. The origins of his rise were also rooted in economic difficulties.

• 
  The decisions of the Washington Conference deprived Japan of a privileged position in Chinese markets.
• 
  The revolution that began in China accompanied by a boycott of goods by foreign powers, provoked an economic crisis in Japan in 1927. The collapse of banks, the fall of the yen, and the decline in production gave rise to the desire to solve all problems through external expansion.

However, the weakness of political parties and the special role of corporate, departmental, and clan groups fighting for influence on the imperial court excluded the emergence of mass political movements. The main bearer of the ideas of militant nationalism became the top of the armed forces , which created semi-secret societies associated with financial and industrial groups (zaibatsu). Their influence strengthened the militaristic-oligarchic character of the Japanese nationalism.

IN1927 General G. Tanaka became the head of government, supporter of an offensive foreign policy and a tough course within the country. IN1928 seiyukai party, whose leader was Tanaka, was defeated in the elections, but the Emperor of Japan left him in power. The government arrested the leaders of some radical left organizations, including the Communist Party. Was accepted "Dangerous Thoughts" Law , which provided for the death penalty for calls for the overthrow of the existing system. Preparations were made at an accelerated pace for a new war for the redivision of the world.

Questions and tasks

1. 
   Why in Germany in the 1920-1930s. Has the popularity of communists and national socialists increased?
2. 
   How did the global economic crisis affect the socio-political situation in Germany?
3. 
   What was A. Hitler's path to power? Explain the reasons for the establishment of the fascist dictatorship in Germany.
4. 
   Describe the domestic and foreign policies of the fascist regime. Why did most Germans support him?
5. 
   How did the fascist regime of B. Mussolini established in Italy differ from the fascist dictatorship in Germany? How were they similar? Why did fascist parties strive to comply with the norms of parliamentary democracy on the way to power?
6. 
   Reveal the ways in which militant nationalism and militarism manifest themselves in Japan.
7. 
   Based on the text of the paragraph and documents, fill out the table “The Formation of Totalitarian Regimes.”

Task 7.Draw a conclusion: what was common in the development of Germany, Italy, Japan in the 1930s. and how did the political regimes of these countries differ?

Documentary materials

From a speech by A. Hitler (February 1933):

The world's markets are limited in capacity and production is oversupplied everywhere. The development of new lands is the only opportunity to again reduce the army of unemployed<...>The living space for the German people is too small. The construction of the Wehrmacht is the most important prerequisite for achieving the goal of gaining political power<...>How will political power be used once we acquire it?<...>Perhaps the conquest of new markets, perhaps - and perhaps this is better - the seizure of new living space in the East and its merciless Germanization.
Questions 13.What goals did A. Hitler proclaim in 1933? What means were proposed to be used for this?

In the interests of self-defense, Japan will pursue a policy of “blood and iron.”

If we want to take control of China in the future, we must crush the United States. To conquer China, we must first conquer Manchuria and Mongolia<...>This area should be used as a base to penetrate China under the pretext of developing our trade.

Having mastered the resources of China, we will move on to the conquest of India, the countries of the South Seas, and then to the conquest of Asia Minor, Central Asia and, finally, Europe<...>Our national development program includes the need to once again cross swords with Russia.
Question 14.How was the need for a transition to the “blood and iron” policy justified in the memorandum? Describe Japan's action plans. How can one evaluate such a policy?

Lesson topic

Fundamentals of the domestic and foreign policy of fascism

A) educational:

To acquaint students with the basic principles of domestic policy in fascist states;

Consider the main directions of the foreign policy of the fascist governments of Italy, Spain, Portugal and Germany.

A) developing:

Develop the ability to independently find similarities and differences in certain historical phenomena (domestic and foreign policies of fascist states).

B) educational:

Promote the development of political culture.

Equipment:

World history of the 19th – 20th centuries: Textbook. For 11th grade. general education school from Russian training; Ed. V. S. Kosheleva. – Mn.: Nar. Asveta, 2002.

Map "Western Europe after World War I"

Lesson Plan

1. Organizational moment.

2. Checking the d/z.

3. Studying new material.

4. Consolidation of new material.

5. Lesson summary (d/w and marking).

During the classes

1. Organizational moment.

Greeting;

Checking absentees.

2. Checking the data

1) Name and explain the reasons for the emergence of fascism in Europe?

2) Explain the meaning of the concepts: fascism, nationalism, racism, totalitarianism, authoritarianism, leaderism.

3) Name the fascist dictators in European countries.

3. Learning new material

In Italy, Portugal, Germany and Spain, the fascists concentrated all power in their hands. In Germany they crushed the workers' parties and forced the rest to dissolve themselves. The same fate befell the trade unions. The NSDAP became the only political party. She had a monopoly on power. Its members occupied leading government positions. The Nazis put an end to self-government of the lands and dissolved the Landtags. Germany itself turned from a federation into a unitary (from the Latin unitas - unity) state. The post of President was combined with the post of Reich Chancellor. A. Hitler thus transferred the powers of the president. He became Fuhrer for life and Reich Chancellor. At the same time, an apparatus for the destruction of opponents of fascism was created: concentration camps, security detachments (SS), secret police (Gestapo), security service, etc.

The Nazis took control of the media, the work of educational, cultural and educational institutions, and the organization of leisure activities for the population. In Italy they introduced “fascist Saturdays”, when in all institutions people, regardless of gender, age and social status, were engaged in military, sports and political training. Solemn celebrations of “memorable” dates (the day of the putsch, the coming to power, the birth of a leader, etc.), processions of “Brown Shirts” and “Black Shirts”, the burning of prohibited literature, mass sports competitions, and concerts of amateur performances became a practice.

Dissidents were brutally persecuted. In Germany alone, at the beginning of 1939, there were over 300 thousand such people in prisons. Many famous figures in science, literature and art were forced to leave the country. Among them are physicist Albert Einstein, writers Lion Feuchtwanger, brothers Thomas and Heinrich Mann, Bertolt Brecht, Anna Seghers and others.

State regulation became the basis for economic management and the destruction of the market economy. In Germany in 1933 - 1936. the first four-year plan for economic development was carried out, and in 1937 - 1940. - second. Their goal is to create a broad base for the deployment of military production and the accumulation of strategic raw materials. In Italy, a “battle for bread and land reclamation” unfolded, which took on the character of a general mobilization and aimed at providing the country with bread. In parallel with it, the “battle for high birth rates” developed under the slogan: “More population - more soldiers - more power.”

The official economic doctrine of the fascists became the policy of autarky - the creation of a closed economic complex, independent of the external market. Its core was militarism. The fascist states were actively preparing for a new war: they built and put into operation highways and railways, factories for the production of military equipment and ammunition. The foreign policy of the fascists was also subordinated to this goal. It was based on extremely aggressive aspirations. Italy and Germany took the path of undermining the Versailles-Washington system, which constrained their actions in the international arena. They left the League of Nations.

Germany immediately took the path of eliminating the military restrictions established by the Treaty of Versailles and began to commit aggressive acts one after another. She strove for world hegemony. Italy also took the path of seizing foreign territories.

However, despite all the similarities in the essence of fascist regimes and their goals, there were many differences between them. For example, in Germany the Nazis came to power through constitutional means, and in Italy, Portugal and Spain as a result of violent coups. The fascists of Italy aimed not at world domination, but at establishing control over the Mediterranean Sea and “reviving the greatness of the Roman Empire.” In Portugal and Spain they did not put forward plans for external expansion at all, limiting themselves to a conservative program. In Germany, the Nazis rejected the monarchy, in Italy it continued to exist. While the Hitler regime was generally hostile to the Christian church, B. Mussolini relied on the support of the Vatican and called it “the embodiment of the glory of Italy.” In addition, parliament and political parties in Italy continued to play a prominent role. The fate of the fascist regimes was also different.

If in Italy and Germany they were eliminated in 1945, then in Portugal and Spain they turned out to be capable of liberal evolution. Dictators A. Salazar and F. Franco until the 70s. XX century, having secured the support of the United States, remained active politicians.

4. Consolidation of new material

Compiling a comparison table:

"Similarities and differences of fascist regimes in European countries."

5. Lesson summary (d/w and marking)

D/z - §30 (clause 3)

History teacher Kushaeva S. E. ________________

Methodist in history Vabishchevich A. N. ________________

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In 1929, Mussolini signed the Lateran Concordat with the Pope - an agreement on the mutual recognition of the Vatican and Italy as sovereign states. The Church retains influence over family law and school education, and the Italian government pays the Pope large sums of money (as compensation for abandoning claims to Rome).

In Italy, the cult of the leader (the Duce) is formed and terror is unleashed. But in general, the scale of Mussolini’s terror did not acquire such monstrous proportions as in Nazi Germany.

Between 1930 and 1934, a corporatist system was established in Italy that covered the entire population. Corporations determined working conditions and regulated relations between employers and workers. This was a specific form of strengthening state control over the entire economic life of Italy and state regulation of labor relations.

Mussolini's economic policy was based on the idea of ​​a strong “leader state” capable of accelerated modernization of traditional economic structures by merging monopolies with the state apparatus. Mussolini sought economic independence for Italy. For this purpose, a sectoral and technical reorganization of the economy was carried out, strict control over production and finance, regulation of consumption, and militarization were introduced.

In 1938, Mussolini issued racial laws, and at the beginning of 1939, he dissolved the Chamber of Deputies and established in its place the Chamber of Fascism and Corporations, consisting of members of the Fascist Grand Council and the National Council of Corporations.

Foreign policy of Italian fascism in the 20s. has not yet acquired outright aggressiveness. Foreign policy of the 30s. characterized by the struggle for national “expansion” and increased aggressiveness. We can highlight the capture of Ethiopia (1935), intervention in Spain (1936-1939), withdrawal from the League of Nations and the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact (1937), participation in the Munich Conference (1938), occupation of Albania (1939), signing of the “Steel Pact” on the military and a political union with Nazi Germany. Having declared France a soldier on June 10, 1940, Italy entered the Second World War.

23.24 Spanish Civil War. The rise of the fascists to power.

Spain until 1932 was a monarchy. Economic crisis 1929-1932 turned into a political one. As a result of the growth of the strike movement and peasant uprisings, Spain was proclaimed a republic. The coalition of socialists and bourgeois-republican parties that came to power carried out social reforms. In particular, a guaranteed minimum wage was introduced, a system of unemployment benefits was created, and the length of the working day and the size of landownership were limited. These measures depleted the treasury, strikes began, and disagreements arose between the parties of the ruling coalition.

In 1933, a bloc of conservative parties won the elections, resorting to austerity measures on social spending. This ensured partial stabilization of the economy, but caused mass protests by workers, which in many provinces developed into uprisings, which were hardly suppressed by the army and police. Under these conditions, the influence of the fascist movement began to grow. The fascist party "Spanish Phalanx" advocated a national revolution, a return to traditional values, and the organization of the state on the basis of "syndicates". This was the Spanish repetition of Mussolini's idea of ​​corporate fascism.

The growing influence of the fascists accelerated the consolidation of left-wing parties. In 1936, socialists, communists, republicans, with the participation of trade unions, influential anarchists in Spain, and other left-wing groups created the Popular Front. Led by Manuel Azañey. His program contained demands for the restoration of democratic freedoms, amnesty for political prisoners, higher wages and lower taxes, the adoption of assistance programs for small owners, and the completion of agrarian reform.

In February 1936, the Popular Front won the parliamentary elections, which prompted the fascist party and the army leadership to begin preparations for a military coup.

The mutiny, led by General F. Franco and supported by 80% of the military, began on July 17, 1936, but the navy and air force remained loyal to the government. From the very beginning, the rebellion was almost defeated; the garrisons of most large cities were defeated by urgently created units of the people's militia. The rebel forces were separated, they managed to establish control only over part of the northern and southern provinces and Spanish Morocco. Germany, Italy and Portugal came to the aid of F. Franco, recognizing him as the legitimate ruler of Spain. Franco troops were transported from Morocco on German transport planes. Germany sent its aviation (the Condor Legion) to Spain, which easily gained air supremacy. Its fleet, together with Italian squadrons, blocked Spanish ports. Italy sent more than 150 thousand “volunteers” to Spain. Already in August, the northern and southern rebel groups united and launched an attack on Madrid.

Since the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, the League of Nations has invited all powers to refrain from interfering in the internal Spanish conflict. However, the USSR began to provide direct assistance to the Spanish Republicans, including sending internationalist volunteers and weapons. In October 1936, the first Soviet ship arrived in Spain with help; the Italian fleet did not dare to sink Soviet ships.

Under these conditions, the ruling circles of democratic countries, Great Britain, France and the United States, for whom the prospects of both fascisation and Sovietization of Spain were equally unpleasant, continued to pursue a policy of non-intervention. They then moved towards recognizing Franco's regime as legitimate. In 1938, at the insistence of the League of Nations, internationalist detachments were withdrawn from Spain, although hostilities still continued. The war in Spain ended only in the spring of 1939 after a split in the ranks of the Popular Front and an uprising in Madrid, raised by right-wing socialists and anarchists who made peace with the Francoists.

The fascist regime is one of the extreme forms of totalitarianism and is characterized by nationalist ideology, ideas about the superiority of one nation over others, as well as extreme aggressiveness. Militarization, the search for an external enemy, aggressiveness, and a tendency to start wars distinguish fascism from other forms of totalitarianism.

Fascism (from Italian fascio - bundle, bundle, association) is an extremely reactionary, anti-democratic, right-wing extremist ideological and political movement aimed at establishing an open terrorist dictatorship, harsh suppression of democratic rights and freedoms, all opposition and progressive movements. Fascism originated in Italy in 1919 under the influence of the nationalist ideas of the leader of the fascist party and head of the Italian government Benito Mussolini, and then developed in Germany, and in the 20-30s it came to power in a number of countries of the world (Portugal, Spain, Bulgaria and a number of other countries of Central and Eastern Europe).

The goal of the fascist state is to protect the national community, solve social problems, and protect the purity of the race. The main premise of fascist ideology is that people are not equal before the law, authorities, courts, their rights and responsibilities depend on the nationality to which they belong.

One nation is declared supreme, leading in the state. Other nations are inferior and subject to destruction. The fascist regime is characterized by: reliance on chauvinistic circles; merger of the state apparatus with monopolies; merging of parties and trade unions with the state apparatus. The state under fascism expands its functions and establishes control over the public and personal life of each person. Fascist law is the right of inequality of people according to the criterion of their nationality. Currently, fascism in its classical form does not exist anywhere

.
26. The state in the political system of society. Concept and structure of the political system

The political system of society is a set of state and public bodies and organizations participating in the political life of the country.

Politics (from the Greek politika state and pi

public affairs, polis - state) - a field of activity related to relations between social groups, the essence of which is the determination of the forms, tasks, and content of state activity.

The state occupies a leading place in the political system of society because:

This is a single political organization whose power extends to the entire population of the country within state borders;

It has a special state apparatus, the execution of which is ensured by the coercive force of the state;

The state has legal means of influencing social relations that no one has;

Has sovereignty, supremacy in relation to other authorities within the country;

Coordinates the main aspects of community life.

Society cannot exist on the basis of transitory goals. There is a united common, objective goal, without which it can neither arise nor develop. This goal is to unite people under a single authority, coordinating the diverse interests of members of society. The state, which stands out from society, becomes its main ruling organization.

State power is the main association, organizing and coercive force in society.

Along with the state, other organizations arise and function in society that unite people based on various interests.

The state is called upon to ensure the normative activities of all non-governmental organizations within the framework of their statutory tasks, to promote their development and improvement:

1) the state provides the constitutional right to citizens to associate in a public organization;

2) the state determines the legal status of some public organizations;

3) the activities of public organizations are under state protection.

Forms of state participation in the political system:

1) lawmaking;

2) management of society.

Basic models of political systems:

1. Command system (command style of managing society, administration, coercion).

2.Competitive system (political confrontation, confrontation of various forces, their competition in the political process). 3. Socio-conciliatory (conciliatory or reconciliatory) - characterized as the main feature by the search for compromise and consensus.

27. Public associations in the political system, their types and interaction with the state.

The concept and forms of public [associations]

Public association is an association of citizens created in accordance with their interests and on the basis of voluntary membership.

A public organization acts at the will of citizens, must comply with the Constitution, not encroach on the territorial integrity of the state, and not create armed groups. The activities of public associations are ensured by various guarantees, which are enshrined in a special law. This allows you to actually use the rights granted to them. Signs of public associations:

1) voluntary association;

2) non-profit;

3) non-state structure;

4) acts on the basis of the charter.

Organizational and legal forms of public associations:

1.National organization(a membership-based public association created on the basis of joint activities to protect common interests and achieve the statutory goals of the united citizens),

2. Social movement(a mass public association consisting of participants and non-members, pursuing social, political and other socially beneficial goals supported by participants in the social movement).

3.Public fund(one of the types of non-profit foundations; it is a non-membership public association, the purpose of which is to form property on the basis of voluntary contributions, other income not prohibited by law and to use this property for socially useful purposes).

Public institution(a non-membership public association whose goal is to provide a specific type of service that meets the interests of the participants and corresponds to the statutory goals of the said association).

5. Public initiative body(a non-membership public association whose goal is to jointly solve various social problems that arise among citizens at their place of residence, work or study, aimed at meeting the needs of an unlimited number of people, etc.).

A political public association is a public association whose charter includes among its main goals. participation in the political life of society should be secured through influence on the formation of the political will of citizens, participation in elections to state authorities and local governments through the nomination of candidates and the organization of their election campaign, participation in the organization and activities of these bodies.

Public associations have the right to create unions(associations) of public associations on the basis of constituent agreements and (or) charters adopted by unions (associations), forming new public associations.

Interference by public authorities and their officials in the activities of public associations, as well as interference of public associations in the activities of public authorities and their officials, is not permitted, except in cases provided for by federal law.

.
28. The concept and structure of civil society, its role in the formation of the rule of law.

Society cannot be reduced only to state forms of its organization. Along with government structures, there are other forms of associations and joint activities of people in society that have an equally important impact on their lives. We are talking about civil society.

Civil society- This is a system of independent and independent of the state public institutions and relations that provide conditions for the realization of private interests and needs of individuals and groups, for the functioning of social, cultural, spiritual spheres, their reproduction and transmission from generation to generation. (includes the organization and activities of public entities, political parties, trade unions, creative associations, religious associations, as well as such areas as economics, upbringing, education, science and culture, family, media).

Civil society is possible only when relationships develop that involve the active manifestation of the creative potential of the individual in all spheres of social relations: economic, political, spiritual.

The state influences civil society and its structures. But at the same time, it also experiences the opposite influence (civil society is the social environment where most of the rights and freedoms of citizens and their associations are realized).

Models of the relationship between civil society and the state:

1) liberalism;

2) statism.

From the perspective of liberalism, the less government intervention in the sphere of civil society, the better for civil society and, consequently, the subjects of civil society.

Statism takes the opposite position on this issue:

the more government intervention, the better off civil society is.

Within the framework of statism, there are two options for the regulatory impact of the state on society:

a) authoritarian statism (a method of power influence on society in which the feedback between the governing and managed systems is blocked or broken; power seeks to shape social relations);

b) democratic statism (a variant of statism in which the parameters and limits of government intervention, especially in the economy, are determined by the needs of civil society, more precisely, by the majority of subjects of civil society)

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29. Rule of law: concept, main features. Problems of forming a rule of law state.

Rule of law and its features Rule of law- this is a form of organization and activity of state power, which is built in relationships with individuals and their various associations on the basis of legal norms. The main features of a rule of law state:

1. The supremacy and rule of law(in a broad sense) and law(in a narrower way). The rule of law is not simply a state that abides by laws. This is a society and a state that recognizes law as historically developing in the public consciousness, an expanding measure of freedom and justice, expressed precisely in laws, by-laws and the practice of implementing human rights and freedoms, democracy, market economy, etc. In laws, the state establishes generally binding rules behavior that should maximally take into account the objective needs of social development on the basis of equality and justice. That is why the law has the highest legal force. The basic law of a rule of law state is the constitution. It formulates the legal principles of state and public life. The Constitution represents the general legal model of society, to which all current legislation must comply. No other legal act of the state may contradict the constitution. The priority of the constitution is an integral feature of the rule of law. Therefore, a rule of law state is a constitutional state. The idea of ​​the rule of law is expressed in Chapter. 1 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation is that the state does not create or grant people their rights, which are inalienable and belong to them from birth (Part 2 of Article 17), but only recognizes them, respects and protects their bearer - the person, his rights and freedoms as the highest value (v. 2). The rights and freedoms of man and citizen determine the meaning, content of laws, the activities of the legislative and executive authorities, and are ensured by justice (Article 18).

2. The principle of separation of powers. This principle determines, on the one hand, the supremacy of the legislative branch, and on the other, the subordinate legislation of the executive and judicial authorities. The division of a single state power into three relatively separate and independent branches prevents possible abuses of power and authority and the emergence of totalitarian government, unbound by law.

5. Mutual responsibility of the individual and the state manifests itself in the fact that in their relationships the individual and the state act as equal partners and have mutual rights and responsibilities. The state not only has the right to demand that an individual fulfill his duties established by law, but also bears responsibility to the individual by performing certain duties. Consequently, a person can demand from the state the fulfillment of its duties, in particular, ensuring the reality of the rights and freedoms enshrined in constitutions, ensuring their security from the state, their property, restoring violated rights and freedoms, and eliminating obstacles to their implementation.

6. Compliance of domestic legislation with generally recognized norms and principles of international law. In accordance with the Constitution of Russia, generally recognized principles and norms of international law are an integral part of its legal system. Generally recognized principles and norms should be understood as principles or norms of general international law that have received universal recognition. To this it should be added that each such norm or principle must be recognized as mandatory by the Russian Federation. Without such recognition they cannot become part of its legal system.

These are the main characteristics of the rule of law. They concentrate universal human values ​​formed in the process of long-term development of a state-organized society. The Constitution of the Russian Federation states (clause 1 of article 1) that “Russia is a democratic federal state of law with a republican form of government”

Fascist regimes in the 20th century brought a lot of troubles and suffering to humanity. It was they who unleashed the largest-scale war in human history - World War II. This concept is applicable only for one country - Italy. The fascist regime in Germany is called “Nazism”. However, this does not change the essence. In history, these concepts have become equivalent; they have become synonymous with inhumanity, cruelty, war and terror. We will discuss these two modes further in the article. We will also answer the question of how the fascist regime established in Italy differed from the German one.

Concept

The term "fascism" is of Italian origin. Translated, it means “bundle”, “bundle”, “union”. This is a political movement that arose in an era of general crisis of the system. Mass unemployment, poverty, hunger - all this forced us to take a different look at the current political system.

Signs

Fascist regimes are characterized by the following features:

• Extreme forms of violence to combat dissent.
• Total control over all spheres of public life: culture, art, media, education, upbringing, etc.
• Militarist character. The foreign policy of the fascist regime is aimed at the enslavement of new lands with the aim of their inhumane exploitation.

Ideology

Fascist regimes are distinguished by a pronounced ideology based on:

• Screaming demagoguery. Fascist speakers, as a rule, speak loudly, without complex terms and concepts. Their speeches are understandable even to poorly educated citizens who begin to “understand” the sources of all the state’s problems, believe the leader, and follow him into a bright future.
• Leaderism. The entire system is united around one leader, without whom it does not function.

Fascist regime of Mussolini

Development in Italy is associated with the name of B. Mussolini. For the first time, fascist organizations began to appear in this country in March 1919. They were called “Combat Alliances” (“Fashi di Combattimento”). Most of their members are World War II veterans. These were people with extremely nationalistic chauvinist views. This organization was headed by the skilled orator B. Mussolini.

Totalitarianism with democratic slogans

A noteworthy fact is that many parties and political forces that, having come to power, create authoritarian and totalitarian regimes, use the most liberal, democratic slogans. This was the case with B. Mussolini’s party. To enlist the support of the broad masses, the speaker promised a real paradise on Earth:

• Abolition of the Senate, police, privileges and titles.
• Universal suffrage.
• Civil rights and freedoms.
• Progressive tax scale, their abolition for the poor.
• Eight hour work day.
• Providing peasants with land with ownership rights.
• General disarmament, renunciation of the arms race and war.
• Independence of the media, judicial system, etc.

Mussolini promised citizens everything they could only dream of. One would like to recall the communist slogan “Factory for the workers, land for the peasants.”

The rise of the fascists to power in Italy

The fascist regime in Italy began to take shape in 1921. It was then that the Union movement began an open struggle for power. By this time, the support among the population was overwhelming. Propaganda with obviously false posters, open demagoguery of promises that no one intended to fulfill, did their job.

Mussolini did not hide that he would gain power at any cost. As he argued in one statement: “The question of power now becomes a question of strength.”

On October 28, 1922, armed columns in black shirts carried out the “March on Rome.” King Victor Emmanuel agreed to make Mussolini prime minister. The government did not dare to wage an armed struggle against fascism. Already on October 30, a triumphal procession took place through the workers' quarters of Rome. The new regime showed that no one was going to waste time. This procession was accompanied by pogroms and clashes with disgruntled socialists.

"Keeping Promises"

The policies of fascist regimes are always based on demagoguery and promises. We have listed above the slogans that the Italian speaker extolled before he assumed the post of prime minister. After the appointment, the Duce (leader) began to “carry out” his program, and reforms of the fascist regime began:

• Establishment of strict state control in all spheres of society, including the economy. A system of corporations was created, which included only its own people, verified by the fascist party.
• Establishment of the cult of the leader (Duce). The entire ideology and political system was transformed under Mussolini's rule.
• The dictator forgot that he had ever been an atheist. He entered into an agreement with the Vatican and supported it financially. For this, Pope Pius XI recognized Mussolini as “heaven-sent.”
• The state began to actively militarize. The promise to disarm the army was not only not fulfilled, but, on the contrary, violated.

What Italy and Germany had in common was that both regimes relied on the power of the once Roman Empire.

Mussolini considered himself the successor of the Caesars. He saw his mission on earth in restoring the borders of the vast Roman Empire. However, he was not able to capture European lands. Therefore, as the first country I chose “Carthage” - the poorest Libya with primitive feudal weapons. Everything matched:

• The African country was part of the Roman Empire in ancient times.
• Libya did not have powerful weapons. Here one could practice offensive actions.
• A small victory gave political privileges.

Fortunately, Italian geologists did not find oil in this country, so Hitler had to try hard to find it and extract it in Europe. He never reached the rich Baku deposits in Russia. He was stopped at Stalingrad. It is unknown how history would have turned out if geologists in Africa had not miscalculated, since Libya is the richest country in terms of “black gold” reserves.

Nazi (fascist) regime in Germany: reasons for its origin

It happened in Germany at the same time as in Italy. Their emergence, along with the Soviet republics, had the following prerequisites:

• The Germans did not feel defeated in the First World War. Their combat units were stationed several kilometers from Paris. If it were not for the abdication of the German emperor, Germany most likely would have been the winner in this war.
• After the defeat, the Allies imposed such reparations on the Germans that for the first time hunger, unemployment, poverty, and an economic crisis with hyperinflation appeared in this country. This created a feeling of injustice and anger. The Germans believed that they had been deceived. They signed peace and received the status of a colony of England and France.

National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP)

These reasons were taken advantage of by the former corporal Adolf Hitler, who had the Combat Iron Cross in battle, the highest award for a soldier. He became the founder of the National Socialist Workers' Party. Its 1920 program included the fight against “wrong capitalism”:

• Withdrawal of unearned income, i.e. renunciation of usury. This area was handled exclusively by Jews.
• Nationalization of large strategic enterprises.
• Transfer of department stores to small German traders.
• Carrying out land reform, banning speculation.

Reasons for the success of the NSDAP

Hitler's party came to power slowly, through political struggle in elections. With each new vote, the National Socialists gained more and more rights, until finally Adolf Hitler was recognized as Chancellor. There were several reasons for success:

• Active political propaganda. The ideas of the Fuhrer, like the Duce, were distinguished by primitiveness, populism, and faith in a bright future.
• Forceful methods. Specially created paramilitary units of “assault detachments” (SA) in brown uniforms raided political opponents, smashed printing houses and newspaper stalls. Once there was even an attempt at a military coup d'etat, the so-called beer hall putsch. However, the German authorities, unlike Italy, dared to use weapons for suppression.
• Financial support. Hitler was supported by wide banking circles from the United States. Historians note that NSDAP employees received wages in dollars, as German marks were greatly depreciated. It was very prestigious to work for Hitler; almost the entire working population wanted to work for him.

Neo-fascism - a problem of our time

Unfortunately, fascist regimes taught humanity nothing. Neo-fascism is constantly flaring up in one country or another. In Germany, after the Second World War, new neo-fascist organizations appeared. In some countries, such forces even seized power. For example, this happened in Greece in 1967, and also in Chile in 1973.

Today the problems of fascism and nationalism are the most pressing. The massive influx of migrants in Europe, their inhospitable behavior, and refusal to accept the laws and regulations of their owners give rise to discontent. Right-wing radical political forces take advantage of this. One of these is the Alternative for Germany party, which is gaining votes in local parliament elections.